Abstract
The use of living walls has been increasing around the world due to their several benefits. However, studies of suitable plant species for living walls, particularly in extreme climates, are quite limited. This study examines the performance of 12 plant species used in two living wall systems: a felt-pocket and a planter in a tropical climate in Thailand. All plants were monitored across wet and cold seasons for plant height, visual quality, thermal performance, and carbon sequestration. The findings show variations in plant performances across the 12 plant species. Increases in plant growth were observed for all plants except for herbaceous and succulent plants, which were less tolerant to wet conditions. Smaller plant increments resulted in poorer thermal properties and less potential for carbon sequestration. The planter system had a higher amount of carbon contents than the felt-pocket system due to its higher plant density. Over 6 months, living wall systems sequestered carbon, with averages of 48.2 g C·m−2 for the felt-pocket system and 166.7 g C·m−2 for the planter system.
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Acknowledgements
This study was funded by the Biodiversity-Based Economy Development Office (Public Organization)—BEDO—under the Research Grant for Climate Change No. 38/2560. The experiments conducted in this study comply with the current laws of the country in which they were performed.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: plant health and survival rates of 24 plant species in the felt-pocket system and the planter system
Plant species | February 2018 | March 2018 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Week 1 | Week 2 | Week 3 | Week 4 | Week 1 | Week 2 | Week 3 | Week 4 | |
Felt-pocket system | ||||||||
Cuphea hyssopifolia Humb | 0/0 | 0/0 | 1/0 | 1/0 | 2/1 | 2/1 | 4/2 | 4/2 |
Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Portulaca oleracea L. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Ligustrum sinense Lour. cv. Variegatum | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Phyllanthus myrtifolius (Wight) Müll.Arg. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 1/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 |
Lantana camara L. | 0/0 | 0/1 | 0/1 | 0/2 | 0/3 | 0/3 | 0/3 | 0/3 |
Arachis pintoi | 1/0 | 3/0 | 4/1 | 4/2 | 4/2 | 4/2 | 4/2 | 4/2 |
Portulaca grandiflora | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Heterocentron elegans (Schltdl.) Kuntze | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 4/0 | 5/0 | 5/0 | 6/0 | 6/0 |
Coleus atropurpurrus Benth. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Convolvulus sabatius Viv | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. | 0/0 | 0/1 | 0/2 | 0/2 | 0/3 | 0/3 | 0/4 | 0/4 |
Plumbago auriculata Lam. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 1/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 | 3/0 | 3/0 | 4/0 |
Melampodium divaricatum | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Ruellia tuberosa L. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 1/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 | 3/0 | 3/0 | 4/0 |
Ophiopogon jaburan (Siebold) Lodd. | 0/0 | 4/0 | 4/0 | 5/0 | 6/0 | 6/0 | 6/0 | 6/0 |
Dianella caerulea Sims | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Polyscias guilfoylei (W.Bull) L.H. Bailey ‘Quinquefolia’ | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Sansevieria trifasciata hort. ex Prain cv. Golden Hahnii Green (mutate) | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Tradescantia spathacea Sw. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Sansevieria trifasciata Prain | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Codiaeum variegatium (L.) Blume | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Planter system | ||||||||
Cuphea hyssopifolia Humb | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 |
Alternanthera bettzickiana (Regel) G. Nicholson. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Portulaca oleracea L. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Ligustrum sinense Lour. cv. Variegatum | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Phyllanthus myrtifolius (Wight) Müll.Arg. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 1/0 | 1/0 | 1/0 | 1/0 |
Lantana camara L. | 0/0 | 0/1 | 0/1 | 0/1 | 0/1 | 1/2 | 1/2 | 2/2 |
Arachis pintoi | 1/0 | 1/0 | 3/0 | 3/1 | 4/1 | 5/1 | 5/1 | 5/1 |
Portulaca grandiflora | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Heterocentron elegans (Schltdl.) Kuntze | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 2/0 | 3/0 | 4/0 | 4/0 | 5/0 |
Coleus atropurpurrus Benth. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Asystasia gangetica (L.) T. Anderson | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Convolvulus sabatius Viv | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don. | 0/0 | 0/2 | 0/2 | 0/2 | 1/2 | 2/2 | 2/2 | 2/2 |
Plumbago auriculata Lam. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 1/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 |
Melampodium divaricatum | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Ruellia tuberosa L. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 1/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 | 2/0 |
Ophiopogon jaburan (Siebold) Lodd. | 2/0 | 4/0 | 5/0 | 5/0 | 6/0 | 7/0 | 8/0 | 8/0 |
Dianella caerulea Sims | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Polyscias guilfoylei (W.Bull) L.H. Bailey ‘Quinquefolia’ | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Sansevieria trifasciata hort. ex Prain cv. Golden Hahnii Green (mutate) | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Tradescantia spathacea Sw. | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Sansevieria trifasciata Prain | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Codiaeum variegatium (L.) Blume | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 | 0/0 |
Appendix 2: T test results of plant temperature between felt-pocket and planter systems
Plant species | Aug 18 | Sep 18 | Oct 18 | Nov 18 | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | F | P | Mean | F | P | Mean | F | P | Mean | F | P | |
POL | 27.09a | 0.060 | 0.964 | 27.82a | 0.453 | 0.652 | 27.45a | 0.599 | 0.512 | 26.99a | 5.914 | 0.595 |
27.10b | 28.09b | 27.98b | 26.58b | |||||||||
CHH | 27.99a | 12.41 | 0.000 | 29.01a | 1.642 | 0.003 | 28.83a | 11.12 | 0.002 | 28.46a | 8.622 | 0.006 |
26.40b | 27.38b | 26.74b | 26.20b | |||||||||
SPH | 29.16a | 5.246 | 0.000 | 29.95a | 3.123 | 0.003 | 29.99a | 0.126 | 0.119 | 29.39a | 0.104 | 0.322 |
27.19b | 28.01b | 28.57b | 28.34b | |||||||||
ABN | 29.15a | 0.030 | 0.002 | 29.90a | 0.019 | 0.005 | 30.53a | 0.062 | 0.043 | 29.89a | 1.749 | 0.021 |
27.41b | 28.10b | 28.58b | 27.68b | |||||||||
LLV | 29.32a | 0.215 | 0.001 | 30.01a | 0.774 | 0.006 | 30.50a | 0.154 | 0.012 | 29.75a | 0.113 | 0.013 |
27.50b | 28.31b | 28.32b | 27.48b | |||||||||
PA | 29.43a | 0.435 | 0.000 | 30.53a | 0.013 | 0.000 | 31.41a | 5.116 | 0.002 | 29.97a | 0.788 | 0.377 |
27.20b | 27.99b | 27.95b | 27.00b | |||||||||
AGA | 27.02a | 0.183 | 0.899 | 27.90a | 0.007 | 0.650 | 28.32a | 0.359 | 0.735 | 27.72a | 0.416 | 0.623 |
26.95b | 27.63b | 28.04b | 27.28b | |||||||||
CSV | 27.11a | 2.543 | 0.285 | 27.87a | 0.100 | 0.828 | 27.83a | 0.910 | 0.679 | 27.35a | 0.022 | 0.951 |
26.62b | 27.74b | 28.16b | 27.30b | |||||||||
ASB | 27.48a | 0.765 | 0.659 | 28.11a | 0.749 | 0.977 | 28.14a | 1.008 | 0.760 | 27.41a | 1.461 | 0.883 |
27.21b | 29.13b | 28.42b | 27.55b | |||||||||
MD | 27.49a | 0.955 | 0.170 | 28.37a | 0.500 | 0.184 | 28.63a | 1.279 | 0.189 | 27.86a | 0.687 | 0.258 |
26.78b | 27.57b | 27.59b | 26.92b | |||||||||
AS | 27.84a | 9.327 | 0.027 | 28.65a | 3.463 | 0.076 | 27.99a | 0.578 | 0.901 | 26.99a | 5.442 | 0.561 |
26.66b | 27.51b | 28.08b | 27.46b | |||||||||
TSS | 28.04a | 0.128 | 0.124 | 28.68a | 1.433 | 0.325 | 28.20a | 5.574 | 0.626 | 27.68a | 3.720 | 0.699 |
27.16b | 28.04b | 27.80b | 27.34b | |||||||||
Appendix 3: carbon content of 12 plant species after 1 year of growing in living walls
Plant species | Percentage of carbon content (%) | Carbon content (g) | Total carbon content (g m−2) | Percentage of carbon content in a living wall system (%) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Above biomass | Below biomass | Substrate | Above biomass | Below biomass | Substrate | Plant | Substrate | ||
Felt-pocket system | |||||||||
POL | 39.97 | 41.57 | 7.32 | 0.81 | 0.51 | 0.49 | 56.66 | 81 | 19 |
CHH | 44.42 | 44.86 | 18.31 | 0.97 | 1.87 | 0.14 | 92.83 | 97 | 3 |
SPH | 48.24 | 44.50 | 3.49 | 0.92 | 0.99 | 0.31 | 84.20 | 92 | 8 |
ABN | 51.17 | 51.84 | 9.29 | 0.96 | 0.97 | 0.14 | 76.80 | 96 | 4 |
LLV | 49.30 | 48.46 | 1.52 | 0.99 | 0.87 | 0.04 | 70.56 | 99 | 1 |
PA | 47.47 | 43.36 | 15.18 | 0.62 | 0.33 | 0.72 | 41.66 | 62 | 38 |
AGA | 50.06 | 48.70 | 11.60 | 0.76 | 1.78 | 1.56 | 141.97 | 76 | 24 |
CSV | 54.97 | 52.24 | 15.29 | 0.93 | 2.59 | 0.54 | 171.51 | 93 | 7 |
ASB | 49.68 | 48.85 | 8.52 | 0.96 | 1.43 | 0.18 | 97.61 | 96 | 4 |
MD | 51.81 | 50.73 | 48.83 | 0.95 | 5.15 | 0.61 | 292.05 | 95 | 5 |
AS | 51.09 | 47.99 | 51.50 | 0.84 | 0.71 | 0.94 | 130.05 | 84 | 16 |
TSS | 38.15 | 45.34 | 4.43 | 0.87 | 1.77 | 0.37 | 62.58 | 87 | 13 |
Planter system | |||||||||
POL | 46.06 | 42.13 | 7.48 | 0.71 | 0.56 | 0.85 | 181.85 | 71 | 29 |
CHH | 48.76 | 48.62 | 5.87 | 0.90 | 1.55 | 0.44 | 283.98 | 90 | 10 |
SPH | 45.82 | 46.63 | 2.14 | 0.95 | 1.77 | 0.19 | 258.61 | 95 | 5 |
ABN | 47.47 | 51.78 | 37.49 | 0.86 | 1.57 | 0.89 | 391.17 | 86 | 14 |
LLV | 44.49 | 48.19 | 1.90 | 0.73 | 0.48 | 0.41 | 93.76 | 73 | 27 |
PA | 45.41 | 41.88 | 8.50 | 0.27 | 0.29 | 2.92 | 248.93 | 27 | 73 |
AGA | 48.98 | 48.98 | 35.09 | 0.76 | 1.92 | 1.34 | 350.19 | 76 | 24 |
CSV | 49.19 | 54.55 | 12.42 | 0.81 | 2.89 | 1.47 | 491.96 | 81 | 19 |
ASB | 47.62 | 49.67 | 26.05 | 0.77 | 1.15 | 0.86 | 236.74 | 77 | 23 |
MD | 51.90 | 51.73 | 24.00 | 0.91 | 3.74 | 0.79 | 572.92 | 91 | 9 |
AS | 50.05 | 48.91 | 23.46 | 0.80 | 1.25 | 1.08 | 328.80 | 80 | 20 |
TSS | 40.71 | 53.42 | 4.17 | 0.87 | 2.04 | 0.43 | 214.95 | 87 | 13 |
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Charoenkit, S., Yiemwattana, S. The performance of outdoor plants in living walls under hot and humid conditions. Landscape Ecol Eng 17, 55–73 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11355-020-00433-8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11355-020-00433-8