Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Fluoride Geochemistry and Exposure Risk Through Groundwater Sources in Northeastern Parts of Rajasthan, India

  • Published:
Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Exposure to fluoride concentrations above a threshold of 1.5 mg/L can cause joint pains, restricted mobility, skeletal and dental fluorosis. This study aims to determine the hydrochemical evolution of the fluoride-rich groundwater and estimate the risk of fluoride exposure to the residents of semi-arid northeastern part of Rajasthan, India. The methodology involves measurement of fluoride and other ionic concentrations in groundwater using ion chromatography, followed by an estimation of the cumulative density function and fluorosis risk. The fluoride concentration in water samples varied from 0.04 to 8.2 mg/L with 85% samples falling above the permissible limit. The empirical cumulative density function was used to estimate the percentage and degree of health risks associated with the consumption of F− contaminated water. It is found that 55% of the samples indicate risk of dental fluorosis, 42% indicate risk of deformities to knee and hip bones, and 18% indicate risk of crippling fluorosis. In addition, instances of high nitrate concentrations above the permissible limit of 45 mg/L are also found in 13% of samples. The fluoride rich groundwater is mainly associated with the Na–HCO3–Cl type water facies while low fluoride groundwater shows varied chemical facies. The saturation index values indicate a high probability of a further increase in F− concentration in groundwater of this region. The calculated fluoride exposure risk for the general public in the study area is 3–6 times higher than the allowed limit of 0.05 mg/kg/day. Based on the results of this study, a fluorosis index map was prepared for the study area. The northern and northeastern parts are less prone to fluorosis, whereas the south-central and southwestern parts are highly vulnerable to fluorosis. The inferences from this study help to prioritize the regions that need immediate attention for remediation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6

Similar content being viewed by others

Data Availability

All data are generated or analysed in this study are included in this article.

Code Availability (software application or custom code)

Not applicable.

References

  • Adimalla N, Venkatayogi S (2018) Geochemical characterization and evaluation of groundwater suitability for domestic and agricultural utility in semi-arid region of Basara, Telangana State, South India. Appl Water Sci 8:143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0787-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • APHA (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association, Washington, DC 20005. ISBN 0-87553-207-1

  • Batra J, Vispute JB, Deshmukh AN, Vali S (1995) Contribution from rock, soil and groundwater to fluoride content of food stuffs grown in some selected villages of Bhadravati tehsil, Chandrapur district (M.S.), Gondwana. Geol Mag 9:81–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Battaleb-Looie S, Moore F, Malde MK, Jacks G (2013) Fluoride in groundwater, dates and wheat: estimated exposure dose in the population of Bushehr, Iran. J Food Compos Anal 29(2):94–99

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • BIS (2012) Bureau of Indian Standards, drinking water specification (second revision). ICS 13.060.20, IS 10500:2012

  • Brindha K, Elango L (2011) Fluoride in groundwater: causes, implications, and mitigation measures. Fluoride Prop Appl Environ Manag 1:111–136

    Google Scholar 

  • Brindha K, Elango L (2013) Geochemistry of fluoride rich groundwater in weathered Granitic Rock Region, Southern India. Water Qual Expo Health 5(3):477–478

    Google Scholar 

  • Brindha K, Jagadeshan G, Kalpana L, Elango L (2016) Fluoride in weathered rock aquifers of southern India: managed aquifer recharge for mitigation. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1356-016-6069-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • CGWB (2013) Ground Water Information Jaipur District Rajasthan, Western Region, Jaipur, Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India

  • CGWB (2018) Ground water quality in shallow aquifers in India. Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources RD & GR, Government of India, Faridabad

    Google Scholar 

  • Chakraborti D, Rahman MM, Chatterjee A, Das D, Das B, Nayak B (2016) Fate of over 480 million inhabitants living in arsenic and fluoride endemic Indian districts: magnitude, health, socio-economic effects and mitigation approaches. J Trace Elements Med Biol 38:33–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2016.05.001

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chandra KG, Sahu P (2020) Fluoride contamination and health effects: an Indian scenario. In: Shukla V, Kumar N (eds) Environmental concerns and sustainable development, vol 11. Springer, Singapore, pp 213–233. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-5889-0_11

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Choubisa SL (2001) Endemic fluorosis in southern Rajasthan, India. Res Rep Fluoride 34(1):61–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Choubisa SL (2015) Industrial fluorosis in domestic goats (Capra hircus), Rajasthan, India. Fluoride 48(2):105–112

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choubisa SL (2017) A brief and critical review on hydrofluorosis in diverse species of domestic animals in India. Environ Geochem Health 40(1):99–114

    Google Scholar 

  • Choubisa SL (2018) Brief and critical review of endemic hydrofluorosis in Rajasthan, India. Research review. Fluoride 51(1):13–33

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choubisa SL, Choubisa D (2015) Neighborhood fluorosis in people residing in the vicinity of superphosphate fertilizer plants near Udaipur city of Rajasthan (India). Environ Monit Assess 187(8):497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4723-z

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choubisa SL, Choubisa D (2016) Status of industrial fluoride pollution and its diverse adverse health effects in man and domestic animals in India. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23(8):7244–7254

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deshmukh AN, Valadaskar PM, Malpe DB (1995) Fluoride in environment: a review, Gondwana. Geol Mag 9:1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Dinesh C (1998) Fluoride and human health-cause for concern. Indian J Environ Protect 19:81–89

    Google Scholar 

  • Dissanayake C (1991) The fluoride problem in the ground water of Sri Lanka environmental management and health. Int J Environ Studies 38(2–3):137–155

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farooqi A, Masuda EH, Siddiqui ER, Naseem EM (2009) Sources of arsenic and fluoride in highly contaminated soils causing groundwater contamination in Punjab, Pakistan. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 56:693–706. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-008-9239-x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Forman D, Al-Dabbagh S, Doll R (1985) Nitrates, nitrites and gastric cancer in Great Britain. Nature 313:620–625

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grimaldo M, Borja V, Ramirez AL, Ponce M, Rosas M, Diaz-Barriga F (1995) Endemic fluorosis in San Luis Potosi, Mexico. I. Identification of risk factors associated with human exposure to fluoride. Environ Res 68:25–30

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta SC, Rathore GS, Doshi CS (1993) Fluoride distribution in ground water of southern Rajasthan. Indian J Environ Health 33(2):97–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Handa BK (1975) Geochemistry and genesis of fluoride containing groundwater in India. Ground Water 13:275–281

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hem JD (1985) Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics of natural water. USGS, Water Supply Paper 2254, pp 264

  • Hounslow AW (1995) Water quality data analysis and interpretation. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL

    Google Scholar 

  • Hussain I, Arif Mohd, Hussain J (2012) Fluoride contamination in drinking water in rural habitations of Central Rajasthan, India. Environ Monit Assess 184:5151–5158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-011-2329-7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacks G, Bhattacharya P, Chaudhary V, Singh K (2005) Controls on the genesis of some high-fluoride groundwaters in India. Appl Geochem 20:221–228

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jagadeshan G, Kalpana L, Elango L (2015) Major ion signatures for identification of geochemical reactions responsible for release of fluoride from geogenic sources to groundwater and associated risk in Vaniyar River basin, Dharmapuri district, Tamil Nadu, India. Environ Earth Sci 74:2439–2450

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jagtap S, Yenkie MK, Labhsetwar N, Rayalu S (2012) Fluoride in drinking water and defluoridatoin of water. Chem Rev 112:2454–2466

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jain A, Singh SK (2014) Prevalence of fluoride in groundwater in Rajasthan State: extent, contamination levels and mitigation. Open J Water Pollut Treatm 1(2):2374–6351. https://doi.org/10.15764/WPT.2014.02006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jha SK, Nayak AK, Sharma YK (2008) Fluoride occurrence and assessment of exposure dose of fluoride in shallow aquifers of Makur, Unnao district Uttar Pradesh, India. Environ Monit Assess 156:561–566

    Google Scholar 

  • Jha SK, Singh RK, Damodaran T, Mishra VK, Sharma DK, Rai D (2013) Fluoride in groundwater: toxicological exposure and remedies. J Toxicol Environ Health B 16(1):52–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/10937404.2013.769420

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalpana L, Elango L (2013) Assessment of water quality for drinking and irrigation purpose in pambar river sub-basin Tamil Nadu. Indian J Environ Prod 33:772–777

    Google Scholar 

  • Karunanidhi D, Aravinthasamy P, Roy PD, Praveenkumar RM, Prasanth K, Selvapraveen S, Thowbeekrahman A, Subramani T, Srinivasamoorthy K (2020) Evaluation of non-carcinogenic risks due to fluoride and nitrate contaminations in a groundwater of an urban part (Coimbatore region) of south India. Environ Monit Assess 192:102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-8059-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keesari T, Shivanna K, Jalihal AA (2007) Isotope hydrochemical approach to understand fluoride release into groundwaters of Ilkal area, Bagalkot District, Karnataka, India. Hydrogeol J 15:589–598

    Google Scholar 

  • Keesari T, Sinha UK, Deodhar A, Krishna SH, Ansari A, Mohokar H, Dash A (2016) Occurrence of fluoride in groundwater from an industrial area in Odisha State, India—a geochemical perspective. Environ Earth Sci 75:1090. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-016-5874-0

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keesari T, Sinha UK, Kamaraj P, Sharma DA (2019) Groundwater quality in a semi-arid region of India: suitability for drinking, agriculture and fluoride exposure risk. J Earth Syst Sci 128:24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-018-1049-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lapworth DJ, Krishan G, MacDonald AM, Rao MS (2017) Groundwater quality in the alluvial aquifer system of northwest India: new evidence of the extent of anthropogenic and geogenic contamination. Sci Total Environ 599–600:1433–1444

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy SM (1994) Review of fluoride exposures and ingestion. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 22:173–180

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Madhavan N, Subramanian V (2002) Fluoride in fractionated soil samples of Ajmer district, Rajasthan. J Environ Monit 4:821–822

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maithani PB, Gurjar R, Banerjee R, Balaji BK, Ramachandran S, Singh R (1998) Anomalous fluoride in groundwater from western part of Sirohi district, Rajasthan and its crippling effects on human health. Curr Sci 74(9):773–777

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malde MK, Zerihun L, Julshamn K, Bjorvatn K (2004) Fluoride, calcium and magnesium intake in children living in a high-fluoride area in Ethiopia—intake through food. Int J Paediatr Dent 14(3):167–174

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malde MK, Scheidegger R, Julshamn K, Bader HP (2011) Substance flow analysis—a case study for fluoride exposure through food and beverages in young children living in Ethiopia. Environ Heal Pers 119(4):579–584

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mukherjee I, Singh UK (2018) Groundwater fluoride contamination, probable release, and containment mechanisms: a review on Indian context. Environ Geochem Health 40(6):2259–2301

  • Murray JJ (1973) A history of water fluoridation. Br Dent J 134:250–254, 299–302, 347–350

  • Murray JJ (1986) Appropriate use of fluorides for human health. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Narsimha A, Sudarshan V (2017) Contamination of fluoride in groundwater and its effect on human health: a case study in hard rock aquifers of Siddipet, Telangana State, India. Appl Water Sci 7:2501–2512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0441-0

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paliwal BS, Okada H (1993) Aravalli Supergroup of India: an example of the Lower Proterozoic rift tectonics and sedimentation. J Sed Soc Japan 39:1–14

    Google Scholar 

  • Panneerselvam B, Kumar PS, Shankar RK, Nagavinothini KV (2020a) Non-carcinogenic risk assessment of groundwater in southern part of Salem district in Tamil Nadu. India. J Chil Chem Soc. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0717-97072020000104697

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panneerselvam B, Paramasivam SK, Karuppannan S (2020b) Dataset on the suitability of groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes in the Sarabanga River region, Tamil Nadu, India. Data Brief 29:105–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2020.105255

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panneerselvam B, Paramasivam SK, Karuppannan S, Nagavinothini R, Pauline S (2020c) A GIS-based evaluation of hydrochemical characterisation of groundwater in hard rock region, South Tamil Nadu, India. Arab J Geosci 13:837. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05813-w

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pant D, Keesari T, Rishi MS, Sharma DA, Jaryal A, Kamble SN, Sinha UK (2020) Hydrochemical evolution of groundwater in the waterlogged area of southwest Punjab. Arab J Geosci 13:773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-020-05795-9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plummer LN, Jones BF, Truesdell AH (1976) WATEQF—a Fortran IV version of WATEQ, a computer program for calculating chemical equilibrium of natural waters. US geol surv water resources investigations report, pp 76–13

  • Praharaj T, Tripathy S, Powell MA, Hart BR (2003) Geochemical studies to delineate topsoil contamination around an ash pond of a coal-based thermal power plant in India. Environ Geol 45:86–97

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rango T, Kravchenko Atlaw B, McCornick PG, Jeuland M, Merola B, Vengosh A (2012) Groundwater quality and its health impact: an assessment of dental fluorosis in rural inhabitants of the Main Ethiopian Rift. Environ Int 43:37–47

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reyes-Gómez VM, Alarcón-Herrera MT, Gutiérrez M, López DN (2015) Arsenic and fluoride variations in groundwater of an endorheic basin undergoing land-use changes. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 68(2):292–304

  • Roy A, Keesari T, Mohokar H, Pant D, Sinha UK, Mendhekar GN (2020) Geochemical evolution of groundwater in hard-rock aquifers of South India using statistical and modelling techniques. Hydrol Sci J 65(6):951–968. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2019.1708914

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sahu BK, Panda RB, Sinha BK (1991) Water quality index of the river Brahmani at Rourkele industrial complex. J Ecotoxicol Toxocol Env Monit 3:169–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Samal AC, Bhattacharya P, Mallick A, Ali MM, Pyne J, Santra SC (2015) A study to investigate fluoride contamination and fluoride exposure dose assessment in lateritic zones of West Bengal, India. Environ Sci Pollut Res 22:6220–6229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3817-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma DA, Rishi MS, Sinha UK, Keesari T (2016) Assessment of groundwater quality of Bathinda district, Punjab with reference to nitrate contamination. J Appl Geochem 18(4):480–489

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma DA, Rishi MS, Keesari T (2017) Evaluation of groundwater quality and suitability for irrigation and drinking purposes in southwest Punjab, India using hydrochemical approach. Appl Water Sci 7(6):3137–3150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-016-0456-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma DA, Keesari T, Rishi MS, Thakur N, Pant D, Sangwan P, Sahoo BK, Kishore N (2020) Distribution and correlation of Radon and Uranium and associated hydrogeochemical processes in alluvial aquifers of Northwest India. Environ Sci Pollut Res. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-10015-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Singh CK, Kumari R, Singh N, Mallick J, Mukherjee S (2013) Fluoride enrichment in aquifers of the Thar Desert: controlling factors and its geochemical modeling. Hydrol Process 27:2462–2474

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh A, Patel AK, Kumar M (2020) Mitigating the risk of arsenic and fluoride contamination of groundwater through a multi-model framework of statistical assessment and natural remediation techniques. In: Kumar M, Snow D, Honda R (eds) Springer transactions in civil and environmental engineering, vol 15. Springer, Singapore, pp 285–300. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9771-5

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Susheela AK, Mondal NK, Singh A (2013) Exposure to fluoride in smelter workers in a primary aluminium industry in India. Int J Occup Environ Med 4:61–72

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Suthar S, Garg VK, Jangir S, Kaur S, Goswami N, Singh S (2008) Fluoride contamination in drinking water in rural habitations of Northern Rajasthan, India. Environ Monitor Assess 145(1–3):1–6

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • UNEP-WHO (1992) Endemic fluorosis—a global health issue. Technical Report on Human Exposure Assessment Location Project

  • USPHS (1962) Drinking water standards. United States Public Health Services, Publications 956, USGPO, Washington, DC

  • Venugopal T, Giridharan EL, Jayaprakash EM (2008) Groundwater quality assessment using chemometric analysis in the Adyar River, South India. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 55:180–190. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-007-9117-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vikas C (2008) Geochemistry of groundwater—an overview of sporadic nitrate contamination in parts of Jaipur district, Rajasthan, India. J Appl Geochem 10(2):166–172

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vikas C, Kushwaha R, Ahmad W, Prasanna VK, Reghunath R (2013) Genesis and geochemistry of high fluoride bearing groundwater from a semi-arid terrain of NW India. Environ Earth Sci 68:289–305. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-012-1739-3

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Viswanathan G, Jaswanth A, Gopalakrishnan S, Sivailango S (2009) Mapping of fluoride endemic areas and assessment of fluoride exposure. Sci Total Environ 407:1579–1587

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang L, Huang J (1995) Outline of control practice of endemic fluorosis in China. Social Sci Med 41(8):1191–1195

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ward MH, Dekok TM, Levallois P, Brender J, Gulis G, Nolan BT, Van Derslice J (2005) Workgroup report: drinking water nitrate and health-rcent findings and research needs. Environ Health Persp 113(11):1607–1614

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO (2002) World Health Organization fluorides, environmental health criteria 227 International Programme on Chemical Safety, Geneva

  • WHO (2017) Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 4th edn, incorporating the 1st addendum ISBN 978-92-4-154995-0

  • World Bank (2010) Deep wells and prudence: Towards pragmatic action for addressing groundwater overexploitation in India. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The World Bank, Washington, DC

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors sincerely thank Dr. P.K. Pujari, Director, RC & I Group, B.A.R.C. and Dr. H.J. Pant, Head, Isotope and Radiation Application Division, B.A.R.C. for their support and encouragement. The personnel from CGWB (Jaipur) are gratefully acknowledged for the help in sample collection. First author thank Mr. Steve Silva (USGS, Menlopark) and Diana Sharma (NPDF, BARC) for editorial corrections. The authors sincerely thank anonymous reviewers for the help improving the interpretation and presentation of the results.

Funding

No funds were obtained to perform this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Isotope Hydrology Section, Isotope and Radiation Application Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra, 400085, India

    Tirumalesh Keesari, Diksha Pant, Annadasankar Roy, Uday Kumar Sinha & Ajay Jaryal

  2. Homi Bhabha National Institute, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai, 400094, India

    Tirumalesh Keesari, Diksha Pant & Annadasankar Roy

  3. Central Ground Water Board, Western Region (WR), Jaipur, Ministry of Water Resources-GR & RD, Government of India, Jaipur, India

    Manveer Singh & S. K. Jain

Authors
  1. Tirumalesh Keesari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Diksha Pant
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Annadasankar Roy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Uday Kumar Sinha
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Ajay Jaryal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Manveer Singh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. S. K. Jain
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

TK: Conceptualization, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, validation, visualization, writing—original draft; UKS: Supervision, review and editing; DP, ASR and AJ: Investigation, data-curation, visualization; MS and SKJ: Investigation, writing and methodology.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tirumalesh Keesari.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. All authors consented to submit/publish the manuscript.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Keesari, T., Pant, D., Roy, A. et al. Fluoride Geochemistry and Exposure Risk Through Groundwater Sources in Northeastern Parts of Rajasthan, India. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 80, 294–307 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00794-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-020-00794-z

Search

Navigation