Electrochemical sensors and biosensors for the determination of diclofenac in pharmaceutical, biological and water samples

Highlights

• An overview of the electrochemical sensors and biosensors developed for the analysis of diclofenac.

• Carbon based-electrodes are the most investigated electrodes in diclofenac analysis.

• Carbon nanotubes and graphene-based composites are the most efficient modifiers for diclofenac detection.

• Constructed biosensors allowed the detection of diclofenac at picomolar levels.

Abstract

Diclofenac is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug of wide use around the world for the treatment of several diseases such as ankylosing spondylitis, acute muscle pain conditions, and osteoarthritis. Although in proper doses it does not display any side effects, an overdose of diclofenac can cause adverse effects in the human body. Moreover, the presence of diclofenac in ecosystems directly affects the health of living organisms, even if it is present at trace. Therefore, the development of analytical tools for diclofenac monitoring was needed. In this context, electrochemical sensing and biosensing methods have been commonly reported. In this review, a critical evaluation of the methods employed for diclofenac analysis is presented according to the following classifications: potentiometric sensors, sensing at non-modified solid electrodes, chemically modified electrodes and biosensors. Recent developments related to the use of electrochemical detection of diclofenac in pharmaceutical formulations, biological fluids and environmental samples were reported and discussed.