Long-term patterns and drivers of microbial organic matter utilization in the northernmost basin of the Mediterranean Sea
Introduction
By producing, utilizing, and processing one of the largest organic matter (OM) pools on the Earth (Hansell et al., 2009), marine heterotrophic prokaryotes represent the gears spinning beneath the oceans’ biogeochemical engine. With half of the global primary production occurring in the ocean (Field et al., 1998), photosynthetic microorganisms represent one of the major OM sources in marine environments. While most of the phytoplankton-derived OM ends up in dissolved form (DOM, Wagner et al., 2020), particulate OM (POM) may derive either from DOM aggregation or from plankton itself (reviewed by Kharbush et al., 2020). Prokaryotes may access both DOM and POM either by direct uptake of small enough molecules (<600 Da, Weiss et al., 1991) or by enzymatic breakdown of high molecular weight OM (Chróst et al., 1992). The uptake of these low molecular weight organic molecules and their subsequent incorporation into microbial biomass converts DOM into POM, which is then suitable for the consumption by higher trophic levels (Cole and Pace, 1995). Therefore, measuring the heterotrophic carbon production (HCP) under different conditions provides an estimation of both prokaryotic growth and of the rates at which OM is moved from one pool to another (Ducklow and Kirchman, 2000).
Organic matter in the marine environment exists in a wide array of physical (e.g., size fraction, Verdugo et al., 2004) and chemical (e.g., number of organic compounds, Riedel and Dittmar, 2014) forms. This diversity is enhanced in coastal areas, where the proximity to the land and the reduced water column depth determine soil- and seabed-derived OM inputs. Moreover, a collateral, freshwater-mediated, flux of inorganic nutrients may fuel OM production by phytoplankton, making coastal zones hot spots of microbe-mediated OM processing (Celussi et al., 2019). Marine heterotrophic prokaryotes rely, therefore, on a plethora of different OM arrangements to fuel their growth. Like many other features of marine plankton, metabolic rates are controlled by environmental drivers such as temperature, pH, salinity, and organic matter features (Pomeroy and Wiebe, 2001; Arnosti, 2011; Morán et al., 2017). These factors are inherently spatially and temporally variable in coastal areas, posing therefore a challenge to the disentanglement of their role in microbial OM processing rates.
The intrinsic variability of coastal areas reflects the internal biological forcing as well as the intense terrestrial, offshore, and atmospheric forcing affecting these boundary zones. Therefore, inadequate temporal and spatial sampling strategies may over- or underestimate the magnitude and the effects of extreme events and even miss them (Ribera d’Alcalà et al., 2004). Multiyear fixed observations are the key tool for carrying out a reliable estimation of plankton dynamics over time, as their analysis allows to distinguish recurrent patterns from exceptional events (Fuhrman et al., 2015) as time represents the ecosystem's path towards its actual state. Therefore, analysing the ecological processes from a temporal perspective allows to quantify, characterize, and compare the fluxes of energy, matter and information underlying the observed changes (Ribera d’Alcalà, 2019).
Here we used a 21-year-long (1999–2019) biogeochemical time series from the Gulf of Trieste (northern Adriatic Sea). We analysed monthly measurements of HCP, chlorophyll a, particulate and dissolved organic carbon, as well as the abundance of heterotrophic prokaryotes and Synechococcus. Long-term trends were extracted from the time series and clustered with a time-constrained algorithm, to identify coherent periods among the selected variables. The non-parametric, machine learning random forest approach, was used to investigate the relative importance and the partial effect of environmental drivers and OM sources on the observed HCP rates over time. The primary goal of the time series analysis was to identify and describe HCP long-term dynamics, underlining microbe-mediated OM processing. Furthermore, we aimed to assess the importance of OM sources, as well as key environmental drivers, in determining HCP rates across the temporal spanning of the series.
Section snippets
Study area and data
The Gulf of Trieste is a land-locked, river-influenced, shallow (<25 m) embayment occupying the northernmost part of the Adriatic Sea. The main freshwater runoff comes from the Isonzo river outflow, in the north-western part of the Gulf, while freshwater sources along its eastern boundary are of torrential nature (Comici and Bussani, 2007). The river runoff in the area is widely variable, driving broad seasonal and interannual salinity fluctuations with values spanning between 28.5 (Kralj et
Microbial and organic matter long-term dynamics
Descriptive statistics of the analysed time series is reported in Supplementary Table 1. Three coherent time periods were identified in the HCP time series by the time-constrained clustering (Fig. 1 a). Their underlying long-term structure consisted of two major cycles, spanning between 1999 and 2007 and between 2012 and 2019 (red and green clusters in Fig. 1 a, respectively). The cycles peaks (2005 and 2007 for the first cycle, 2014 for the second one, Fig. 1 a) were separated by a U-shaped
Discussion
Our overarching aim was to disentangle the dynamics underlying the microbe-mediated processing of organic matter. To pursue this aim, we used a Random Forest approach, allowing us to model and thus explain the observed HCP rates as a function of selected environmental drivers. The primary reason behind the use of Random Forest relies on its high performance and reliability in the estimation of variable importance. This was especially important as our goal was not to predict HCP rates in future
Conclusion
The analysis of a 21-year-long time series allowed us to investigate time-related patterns underlying the evolution of the “inseparable liaison” between microbes and organic matter (Dittmar and Arnosti, 2018). By means of canonical time series analysis coupled with a machine learning approach, we were able to tease apart, in a temporal fashion, long-term environmental drivers of microbial growth. Microbe-mediated organic matter processing in the northernmost part of the Mediterranean Sea is
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Vincenzo Manna: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing. Cinzia De Vittor: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing - review & editing. Michele Giani: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing - review & editing. Paola Del Negro: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing - review & editing. Mauro Celussi: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing - review & editing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the personnel of ARPA and of the Miramare MPA for providing the vessels and the crews for sampling activities. Data for this study have been collected thanks to the support of the Regione Friuli Venezia Giulia and of the programs INTERREG Italy-Slovenia 2 and 3. We highly acknowledge the work of all scientists that have been working in microbial ecology and biogeochemistry at our institute over the years and contributed to the dataset construction: M. Borin
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