Abstract
This paper provides an overview of noun class systems in a sample of 20 Kwa languages. It focuses on the synchronic productivity of noun classification in Kwa as opposed to the full-fledged class system assumed for Proto-Kwa and for the general “Niger-Congo prototype” (Good, Jeff. 2012. How to become a “Kwa” noun.” Morphology 22(2). 293–335; Creissels, Denis. Forthcoming. Noun class systems in Atlantic languages. To appear. In Friederike Lüpke (ed.), The Oxford guide to the Atlantic languages of West Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press). The productivity of class morphology on nouns is studied by exploring class marker alternations as exponents of other grammatical phenomena: the formation of the plural, diminutive derivation and nominalization. We also discuss class indexation on nominal modifiers (adjectives, numerals, demonstratives and indefinite markers) as well as subject and object pronominals. We demonstrate that Kwa languages tend to follow the typological tendencies pertaining to class marking on nouns and class indexation, e.g. the Agreement hierarchy (Corbett, Greville G. 1979. The agreement hierarchy. Journal of Linguistics 15. 203–224), as established for world languages in general and Niger-Congo family in particular (Good, Jeff. 2012. How to become a “Kwa” noun.” Morphology 22(2). 293–335). However, some intriguing discrepancies, e.g. different patterning of indexation on adjectives vs. on numerals in Kwa as opposed to some other Niger-Congo branches, were also attested. In diachronic perspective, our findings suggest that noun class systems are flexible as they show high intragenetic variation and are easily degradable, but they almost never disappear completely.
Abbreviations
- A-N
Avatime-Nyangbo
- An
generalized animacy-based semantic indexation
- CL
class
- COP
copula
- DEF
definite
- FC
full class indexation
- INDEF
indefinite
- K-A
Kebu-Animere,
- Kp-A-B
Kposo-Ahlo-Bowili
- KT
Ka Togo
- N
Northern
- NSF
nominal suffix
- NT
Na Togo
- Ph
phonological indexation
- PL
plural
- P-T
Potou-Tano
- SG
singular
- 1
first person
- 2
second person
- 3
third person
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the Russian Science Foundation, project 17-78-20071 “Languages of West Africa: description and comparative analysis”. We are also very grateful to two anonymous reviewers whose comments helped us to improve this paper.
Appendix. Nominal class marking and indexation in Kwa
| Language | Group | Nominal class marking system | Class indexation | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Noun phrase internal | Noun phrase external | |||||||
| Cardinal numerals | Adjectives | Demonstratives | Indefinite markers | Subject markers | Object markers | |||
| Logba | NT | active | FC | 0 | FC | FC | FC | 0 |
| Lelemi | NT > Lelemic | active | FC | 0 | FC | FC | FC | FC |
| Selee | NT > Lelemic | active | FC | FCa | FC | FC | FC | FC |
| Akebu | KT > K-A | active | FC | 0 | 0 | 0 | FC | FC |
| Avatime | KT > A-N | active | Ph | 0 | Ph | Ph | FC | FC |
| Nyangbo | KT > A-N | active | Ph | 0 | Ph | Ph | FC | ? |
| Tafi | KT > A-N | active | Ph | 0 | Ph | Ph | FC | FC |
| Igo | KT > Kp-A-B | active | An | 0 | An | An | An/0? | 0 |
| Tuwuli | KT > Kp-A-B | active | 0 | Nm | 0 | FC | FC | FC |
| Ikposo | KT > Kp-A-B | vestigial | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Chumburung | Nyo > P-T > Guang > N | active | FC | Nm | 0 | 0 | FC | FC |
| Foodo | Nyo > P-T > Guang > N | active | FC | FC | FC | FC | FC | FC |
| Gonja | Nyo > P-T > Guang > N | active | ? | 0 | 0 | ? | An | An |
| Nkonya | Nyo > P-T > Guang > N | active | An | 0 | 0 | An | An | An |
| Nawuri | Nyo > P-T > Guang > N | active | 0 | 0 | 0 | ? | An | An |
| Efutu | Nyo > P-T > Guang > S | active | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | An | An |
| Akan | Nyo > P-T > Central > Akanic | active | An | Nm | 0 | ? | An | An |
| Baoule | Nyo > P-T > Central > Bia | vestigial | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| Attié | Nyo | vestigial | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | An | An |
| Fon | Gbe | vestigial | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
aOnly one lexeme kplɛ̀ ‘big’ shows class indexation if there is more than one adjective, see Section 5.2.2.
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