Skip to content
Licensed Unlicensed Requires Authentication Published by De Gruyter Mouton June 22, 2018

Language learning strategy use in context: the effects of self-efficacy and CLIL on language proficiency

  • Nils Jaekel EMAIL logo

Abstract

Language learning strategies (LLS) are suggested to facilitate learning and support learner autonomy. The integration of content and language in foreign language education increases the cognitive work load. Furthermore, self-efficacy has been identified as a key predictor for strategy use and language achievement. The present study aimed to (1) investigate LLS use in content-based versus traditional foreign language environments and (2) assess the impact LLS use and self-efficacy have on language proficiency. Participants were Year 9 Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and regular English as a foreign language (EFL) students (N=378) in Germany. Structural equation modelling, controlling for a range of confounding variables, showed that (1) there was no difference in LLS use between CLIL and EFL students. (2) LLS use had a negative impact while self-efficacy predicted higher language proficiency. These results suggest that students may best be supported by enhancing their self-efficacy while they should carefully choose their strategies.

Appendices

A

Table 2:

Correlation matrix of the self-efficacy scale.

12345
1 How important is it for you to speak English well?
2 I want to speak English well533**
3 English is a(n) … (difficult – easy language)476**352**
4 I believe that I can speak English very well285**241**469**
5 I have a (special) talent to learn a foreign language252**189**509**236**
  1. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

  2. Item 3: English is a(n) … (difficult – easy language) was recoded to be in line with the other four items.

References

Ackerl, C. 2007. Lexico-grammar in the essays of CLIL and non-CLIL students: Error analysis of written production. Vienna Englisch Working Papers 16(3). 6–11. https://anglistik.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/dep_anglist/weitere_Uploads/Views/Views_0703.pdf (accessed)Search in Google Scholar

Arbuckle, J. L. 2014. Amos (Version 23.0). Chicago: IBM SPSS.Search in Google Scholar

Aronin, L. & B. Hufeisen. 2009. On the genesis and development of L3 research, multilingualism and multiple language acquisition: About this book. In L. Aronin & B. Hufeisen (eds.), AILA applied linguistics series: V. 6. The exploration of multilingualism. Development of research on L3, multilingualism, and multiple language acquisition, 1–10. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins Pub. Co.10.1075/aals.6Search in Google Scholar

Bandura, A. 1986. The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of Clinical and Social Psychology, 4, 359–373.Search in Google Scholar

Bandura, A. 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Princeton, N.J: Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic.Search in Google Scholar

Bandura, A., C. Barbaranelli, G. V. Caprara & C. Pastorelli. 1996. Multifaceted Impact of Self-Efficacy Beliefs on Academic Functioning. Child Development 67(3). 1206–1222. 10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01791.xSearch in Google Scholar

Benson, P. & X. Gao. 2008. Individual variation and language learning strategies. In S. Hurd & T. Lewis (eds.), Language learning strategies in independent settings, 25–40. Bristol, Buffalo, Toronto: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781847690999-004Search in Google Scholar

Blair, C. & C. C. Raver. 2012. Child development in the context of adversity: Experiential canalization of brain and behavior. The American psychologist 67(4). 309–318. 10.1037/a0027493Search in Google Scholar

Bonnet, A. 2002. 47 % - Das Spracherwerbspotenzial englischsprachigen Chemieunterrichts. In S. Breidbach, G. Bach & D. Wolff (eds.), Mehrsprachigkeit in Schule und Unterricht: Bd. 1. Bilingualer Sachfachunterricht. Didaktik, Lehrer-/Lernerforschung und Bildungspolitik zwischen Theorie und Empirie, 125–139. Frankfurt am Main, New York: P. Lang.Search in Google Scholar

Chamot, A. U. 2005. Language learning strategy instruction: Current issues and research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 25. 10.1017/S0267190505000061Search in Google Scholar

Chamot, A. U. 2009. The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach (2nd ed). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.Search in Google Scholar

Chamot, A. U. & M. O’Malley. 1994. The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.Search in Google Scholar

Cohen, A. D. & C. Griffiths. 2015. Revisiting LLS Research 40 Years Later. TESOL Quarterly 49. 1. https://sites.google.com/a/umn.edu/andrewdcohen/docments/Revisiting%20LLS%20Rearch%2040%20Years%20Later%20-%20Revised%20Version%2011Sep14.docx?attredirects=0&d=1 (accessed)10.1002/tesq.225Search in Google Scholar

Coyle, D. 2007. Strategic classrooms: Learning communities which nurture the development of learner strategies. Language Learning Journal 35(1). 65–79. 10.1080/09571730701315774Search in Google Scholar

Dörnyei, Z & P Skehan. 2003. Individual differences in second language learning. In C Doughty & M. H Long (eds.), Blackwell handbooks in linguistics. The handbook of second language acquisition, 589–630. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.10.1002/9780470756492.ch18Search in Google Scholar

Dörnyei, Z. & E. Ushioda. 2011. Teaching and researching motivation. 2nd edn. Harlow, England, New York: Longman/Pearson.Search in Google Scholar

Dreyer, C & R Oxford. 1996. Learning strategies and other predictors of ESL proficiency among Afrikaans speakers in South Africa. In R Oxford (ed.), Language learning strategies around the world. Cross-cultural perspectives, 61–74. Honolulu: Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawai’i at Manoa.Search in Google Scholar

Eckes, T. & R. Grotjahn. 2006. A closer look at the construct validity of C-tests. Language Testing 23(3). 290–325. 10.1191/0265532206lt330oaSearch in Google Scholar

Ehmke, T & N Jude. 2010. Soziale Herkunft und Kompetenzerwerb. In E Klieme (ed.), PISA 2009. Bilanz nach einem Jahrzehnt, 231–254. Münster: Waxmann.Search in Google Scholar

Ehrman, M & R Oxford. 1989. Effects of sex differences, career choice, and psychological type on adult language learning strategies. The Modern Language Journal 73(1). 1–13. 10.1111/j.1540-4781.1989.tb05302.xSearch in Google Scholar

Ehrman, M & R Oxford. 1995. Cognition Plus: Correlates of language learning success. The Modern Language Journal 79(1). 67–89. 10.1111/j.1540-4781.1995.tb05417.xSearch in Google Scholar

Ehrman, M. E., B. L. Leaver & R. L. Oxford. 2003. A brief overview of individual differences in second language learning. System 31(3). 313–330. 10.1016/S0346-251X(03)00045-9Search in Google Scholar

European Commission. 2006. Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) at school in Europe. Brussels: Eurydice. European Unit.Search in Google Scholar

Ganzeboom, H. B. G., P. M. de Graaf & D. J. Treiman. 1992. A standard international socioeconomic index of occupational status. Social Science Research 21. 1–56.10.1016/0049-089X(92)90017-BSearch in Google Scholar

Gao, X. 2010. Strategic language learning: The roles of agency and context. Buffalo, N.Y: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781847692450Search in Google Scholar

Gardner, R. C., P. F. Tremblay & A.-M. Masgoret. 1997. Towards a full model of second language learning: An empirical investigation. The Modern Language Journal 81(3). 344–362. 10.1111/j.1540-4781.1997.tb05495.xSearch in Google Scholar

Green, J. M. & R Oxford. 1995. A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and gender. TESOL Quarterly 29(2). 261–297. 10.2307/3587625Search in Google Scholar

Grenfell, M. 2007. Language learner strategy research and modern foreign language teaching and learning. Language Learning Journal 35(1). 9–22. 10.1080/09571730701315576Search in Google Scholar

Grenfell, M. & E Macaro. 2008. Claims and critiques. In A. D. Cohen & E Macaro (eds.), Language learner strategies. Thirty years of research and practice, 9–28. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Griffiths, C. 2003a. Language learning strategy use and proficiency: The relationship between patterns of reported language learning strategy (LLS) use by speakers of other languages (SOL) and proficiency with implications for the teaching/learning situation. https://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/handle/2292/9 (accessed)Search in Google Scholar

Griffiths, C. 2003b. Patterns of language learning strategy use. System 31(3). 367–383. 10.1016/S0346-251X(03)00048-4Search in Google Scholar

Griffiths, C. 2013. The strategy factor in successful language learning. Second Language Acquisition. Bristol: Buffalo, Toronto.10.21832/9781847699428Search in Google Scholar

Grotjahn, R. 2002. Konstruktion und Einsatz von C-Tests: Ein Leitfaden für die Praxis. In R Grotjahn (ed.), Der C-Test. Theoretische Grundlagen und praktische Anwendungen, 211–225. Bochum: Verein z. Förd. d. AKS.Search in Google Scholar

Gu, Y. 2002. Gender, academic major, and vocabulary learning strategies of Chinese EFL learners. RELC Journal 33(1). 35–54. 10.1177/003368820203300102Search in Google Scholar

Gu, Y & R. K. Johnson. 1996. Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes. Language Learning 46(4). 643–679. 10.1111/j.1467-1770.1996.tb01355.xSearch in Google Scholar

Gunning, P & R. L. Oxford. 2014. Children’s learning strategy use and the effects of strategy instruction on success in learning ESL in Canada. System 43. 82–100. 10.1016/j.system.2013.12.012Search in Google Scholar

Harrington, D. 2009. Confirmatory factor analysis. Pocket guides to social work research methods. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Harris, V. 2007. Exploring progression: Reading and listening strategy instruction with near-beginner learners of French. Language Learning Journal 35(2). 189–204. 10.1080/09571730701599229Search in Google Scholar

Hong-Nam, K & A. G. Leavell. 2006. Language learning strategy use of ESL students in an intensive English learning context. System 34(3). 399–415. 10.1016/j.system.2006.02.002Search in Google Scholar

Horwitz, E. K. 1999. Cultural and situational influences on foreign language learners’ beliefs about language learning: A review of BALLI studies. System 27(4). 557–576. 10.1016/S0346-251X(99)00050-0Search in Google Scholar

Hsiao, T & R Oxford. 2002. Comparing theories of language learning strategies: A confirmatory factor analysis. The Modern Language Journal 86(3). 368–383. 10.1111/1540-4781.00155Search in Google Scholar

Hsieh, P. P.-H. & H.-S. Kang. 2010. Attribution and self-efficacy and their interrelationship in the Korean EFL context. Language Learning 60(3). 606–627. 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00570.xSearch in Google Scholar

IBM Corp. 2015. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 23.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.Search in Google Scholar

In’namia, Y. & R Koizumi. 2011. Structural equation modeling in language testing and learning research: A Review. Language Assessment Quarterly: An International Journal 8. 250–276. 10.1080/15434303.2011.582203Search in Google Scholar

International Labour Organization. 2010. ISCO - International Standard Classification of Occupations. http://www.ilo.org/public/english/bureau/stat/isco/index.htm (accessed)Search in Google Scholar

Jackson, D. L., J. A. Gillaspy & R Purc-Stephenson. 2009. Reporting practices in confirmatory factor analysis: An overview and some recommendations. Psychological Methods 14(1). 6–23. 10.1037/a0014694Search in Google Scholar

Jaekel, N. 2015. Use and impact of language learning strategies on language proficiency. Investigating the impact of individual difference variables and participation in CLIL streams. Doctoral thesis (Doctoral Thesis). Ruhr-University of Bochum,Bochum. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277014378_Use_and_impact_of_language_learning_strategies_on_language_proficiency_Investigating_the_impact_of_individual_difference_variables_and_participation_in_CLIL_streams (Retrieved from)Search in Google Scholar

Jaekel, N, M. Schurig, M. Florian & M. Ritter 2017. From early starters to late finishers?: A longitudinal study of early foreign language learning in school. Language Learning, 67: 631–664. 10.1111/lang.12242Search in Google Scholar

Järvinen, H.-M. 2007. Language in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL). In D Marsh & D Wolff (eds.), Diverse contexts - converging goals. CLIL in Europe, 253–260. Frankfurt am Main [u.a.]:: Lang.Search in Google Scholar

Kaylani, C. 1996. The influence of gender and motivation on EFL learning strategy use in Jordan. In R Oxford (ed.), Language learning strategies around the world. Cross-cultural perspectives, 75–88. Honolulu: Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawai’i at Manoa.Search in Google Scholar

Klieme, E. (ed.). 2008. Unterricht und Kompetenzerwerb in Deutsch und Englisch: Ergebnisse der DESI-Studie. Weinheim, Basel: Beltz.Search in Google Scholar

Kontra, E. H. & J Kormos. 2006. Strategy use and the construct of C-tests. In R Grotjahn (ed.), Der C-Test. Theorie, Empirie, Anwendungen/The C-test: Theory, empirical research, applications, 121–138. Frankfurt am Main, New York: P. Lang.Search in Google Scholar

Kormos, J, T Kiddle & K. Csizer. 2011. Systems of Goals, Attitudes, and Self-related Beliefs in Second-Language-Learning Motivation. Applied Linguistics 32(5). 495–516. 10.1093/applin/amr019Search in Google Scholar

Lan, R & R. L. Oxford. 2003. Language learning strategy profiles of elementary school students in Taiwan. IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 41. 4. 10.1515/iral.2003.016Search in Google Scholar

Lasagabaster, D. 2008. Foreign language competence in content and language integrated courses. The Open Applied Linguistics Journal 1(1). 30–41. 10.2174/1874913500801010030Search in Google Scholar

Lee, K. R. & R Oxford. 2008. Understanding EFL learners’ strategy use and strategy awareness. Asian EFL Journal 10(1). 7–32.Search in Google Scholar

Maaz, K, U Trautwein, C Gresch, O Lüdtke & R Watermann. 2009. Intercoder-Reliabilität bei der Berufscodierung nach der ISCO-88 und Validität des sozioökonomischen Status. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft 12(2). 281–301. 10.1007/s11618-009-0068-0Search in Google Scholar

Macaro, E. 2006. Strategies for language learning and for language use: Revising the theoretical framework. The Modern Language Journal 90(3). 320–337. 10.1111/j.1540-4781.2006.00425.xSearch in Google Scholar

McLoyd, V. C. 1998. Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist 53(2). 185–204. 10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.185Search in Google Scholar

McMullen, M. G. 2009. Using language learning strategies to improve the writing skills of Saudi EFL students: Will it really work? System 37(3). 418–433. 10.1016/j.system.2009.05.001Search in Google Scholar

Mewald, C. 2007. A comparison of oral foreign language performance of learners in CLIL and in mainstream classes at lower secondary level in Lower Austria. In C. Dalton-Puffer & U Smit (eds.), Empirical perspectives on CLIL classroom discourse, 137–177. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.Search in Google Scholar

Mills, N, F Pajares & C Herron. 2007. Self-efficacy of College Intermediate French Students: Relation to Achievement and Motivation. Language Learning 57(3). 417–442. 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00421.xSearch in Google Scholar

Mißler, B. 1999. Fremdsprachenlernerfahrungen und Lernstrategien: Eine empirische Untersuchung. Tübingen: Stauffenburg.Search in Google Scholar

Murayama, K, R Pekrun, S. Lichtenfeld & R Vom Hofe. 2012. Predicting long-term growth in students’ mathematics achievement: The unique contributions of motivation and cognitive strategies. Child Development, n/a10.1111/cdev.12036Search in Google Scholar

Nguyen, N. & F Godwyll. 2010. Factors influencing language-learning strategy use of English learners in an ESL context. Mid-Western Educational Researcher 23(4). 7–13.Search in Google Scholar

Nikolov, M. & J. M. Djigunovic. 2006. Recent research on age, second language acquisition, and early foreign language learning. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 26. 10.1017/S0267190506000122Search in Google Scholar

Nold, G, J Hartig, S Hinz & H Rossa. 2008. Klassen mit bilingualem Sachfachunterricht: Englisch als Arbeitssprache. In E Klieme (ed.), Unterricht und Kompetenzerwerb in Deutsch und Englisch. Ergebnisse der DESI-Studie, 451–457. Weinheim, Basel: Beltz.Search in Google Scholar

Osterhage, S. 2009. Sachfachkönnen (scientific literacy) bilingual und monolingual unterrichteter Biologieschüler: Ein Kompetenzvergleich. In D Caspari, W Hallet, A Wegner & W Zydatiß (eds.), Bilingualer Unterricht macht Schule. Beiträge aus der Praxisforschung, 2nd edn. 41–50. Frankfurt, M, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, NY, Oxford, Wien: Lang.Search in Google Scholar

Oxford, R. 1990. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston, Mass: Heinle & Heinle.Search in Google Scholar

Oxford, R. 2011. Teaching and researching language learning strategies. Harlow. England, N.Y: Pearson/Longman.Search in Google Scholar

Oxford, R & J. A. Burry-Stock. 1995. Assessing the use of language learning strategies worldwide with the ESL/EFL version of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). System 23(1). 1–23. 10.1016/0346-251X(94)00047-ASearch in Google Scholar

Oxford, R, Y Cho, S Leung & H.-J. Kim. 2004. Effect of the presence and difficulty of task on strategy use: An exploratory study. IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 42(1). 1–47. 10.1515/iral.2004.001Search in Google Scholar

Oxford, R & M Ehrman. 1995. Adults’ language learning strategies in an intensive foreign language program in the United States. System 23(3). 359–386. 10.1016/0346-251X(95)00023-DSearch in Google Scholar

Oxford, R & M Nyikos. 1989. Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies by university students. The Modern Language Journal 73(3). 291–300. 10.1111/j.1540-4781.1989.tb06367.xSearch in Google Scholar

Oxford, R. L. 2017. Teaching and researching language learning strategies: Self-regulation in context. New York N.Y: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar

Pemberton, R. (ed.). 1996. Taking control: Autonomy in language learning. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Psaltou-Joycey, A & Z Kantaridou. 2009. Plurilingualism, language learning strategy use and learning style preferences. International Journal of Multilingualism 6(4). 460–474. 10.1080/14790710903254620Search in Google Scholar

Purpura, J. E. 1999. Learner strategy use and performance on language tests: A structural equation modeling approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar

Raatz, U. 2002. C-Tests and intelligence. In J. A. Coleman, R Grotjahn & U. Raatz (eds.), University language testing and the C-test, 169–185. Bochum: AKS-Verl.Search in Google Scholar

Rumlich, D. 2016. Evaluating bilingual education in Germany: CLIL students’ general English proficiency, EFL self-concept and interest. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.10.3726/978-3-653-06460-5Search in Google Scholar

Scarcella, R. C. & R. Oxford. 1992. The Tapestry of language learning: The individual in the communicative classroom. Boston, Mass.: Heinle & Heinle.Search in Google Scholar

Schrader, F.-W., A. Helmke, W. Wagner, G. Nold & K. Schröder. 2008. Lernstrategien im Fach Englisch. In E. Klieme (ed.), Unterricht und Kompetenzerwerb in Deutsch und Englisch. Ergebnisse der DESI-Studie, 270–282. Weinheim, Basel: Beltz.Search in Google Scholar

Schreiber, J. B., A. Nora, F. K. Stage, E. A. Barlow & J. King. 2006. Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. The Journal of Educational Research 99(6). 323–338. 10.3200/JOER.99.6.323-338Search in Google Scholar

Schunk, D. H. & F. Pajares. 2010. Self-efficacy beliefs. In P. L. Peterson (ed.), Science direct. International Encyclopedia of Education. Editors-in-Chief: Penelope L. Peterson … [et al.], 3rd edn. 668–672. Amsterdam: Elsevier.10.1016/B978-0-08-044894-7.00620-5Search in Google Scholar

Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. 2007. Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Pearson Education.Search in Google Scholar

Tuncer, U. 2009. How do monolingual and bilingual language learners differ in use of learning strategies while learning a foreign language? Evidences from Mersin University. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 1(1). 852–856. 10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.153Search in Google Scholar

Van Der Silk, F. W. P., R. W. N. W. Van Hout & J. J. Schepens. 2015. The gender gap in second language acquisition: Gender differences in the acquisition of Dutch among immigrants from 88 countries with 49 mother tongues. PloS one 10(11). e0142056. 10.1371/journal.pone.0142056Search in Google Scholar

Vockrodt-Scholz, V. & W. Zydatiß. 2010. Sprachproduktive Faktoren und die Konstruktvalidität von C-Tests: Kompetenzniveaus und Fehlerquotient in textsortengebundenen Schreibaufgaben. In R. Grotjahn (ed.), Der C-Test: Beiträge aus der aktuellen Forschung, 1–40. Frankfurt, M, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, NY, Oxford, Wien: Lang.Search in Google Scholar

Weiß, R. H. 2008. CFT 20-R, Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.Search in Google Scholar

Wenden, A. 2001. Metacognitive knowledge in SLA: The neglected variable. In M. P. Breen (ed.), Learner contributions to language learning. New directions in research, 44–64. Harlow, England, New York: Longman.Search in Google Scholar

Wharton, G. 2000. Language learning strategy use of bilingual foreign language learners in Singapore. Language Learning 50(2). 203–243. 10.1111/0023-8333.00117Search in Google Scholar

Wolff, D. 2009. Strategien im bilingualen Sachfachunterricht. In C. Gnutzmann, F. G. Königs, Zöfgen Ekkehard & M. Raupach (eds.), Themenschwerpunkt: Strategien im Fremdsprachenunterricht, 137–157. Tübingen: Narr.Search in Google Scholar

Wu, Y.-L. 2008. Language learning strategies used by students at different proficiency levels. Asian EFL Journal 10. 4.Search in Google Scholar

Yang, N.-D. 1999. The relationship between EFL learners’ beliefs and learning strategy use. System 27(4). 515–535. 10.1016/S0346-251X(99)00048-2Search in Google Scholar

Zimmerman, B. J. 2000. Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary educational psychology 25(1). 82–91. 10.1006/ceps.1999.1016Search in Google Scholar

Zimmerman, B. J. 2008. Investigating self-regulation and motivation: Historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal 45(1). 166–183. 10.3102/0002831207312909Search in Google Scholar

Zydatiß, W. 2005. Bildungsstandards und Kompetenzniveaus im Englischunterricht: Konzepte, Empirie, Kritik und Konsequenzen. Frankfurt am Main, New York: Lang.Search in Google Scholar

Zydatiß, W. 2007. Deutsch-Englische Züge in Berlin (DEZIBEL): Eine Evaluation des bilingualen Sachfachunterrichts an Gymnasien; Kontext, Kompetenzen, Konsequenzen. Mehrsprachigkeit in Schule und Unterricht: Vol. 7. Frankfurt am Main: Lang.Search in Google Scholar

Published Online: 2018-06-22
Published in Print: 2020-06-25

© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Downloaded on 25.4.2024 from https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/iral-2016-0102/html
Scroll to top button