Abstract
The present paper examines the lexical profiles of children and adult EFL learners in an attempt to untangle the roles of age and hours of exposure and their effect on lexical knowledge. Both age and exposure time have generally been acknowledged as relevant factors influencing foreign language acquisition, and vocabulary learning specifically. Participants in the study, who share the same amount of exposure to the target language but differ in age, were asked to write an informal letter introducing themselves. Their letters were scrutinized and mean production of tokens and types was found together with word frequencies and some lexical inconsistencies. In addition, the children participating in the study were enrolled in a CLIL program to match their hours of instruction with those of the adults. Their lexical profiles are characterized by fewer tokens and types and words of lower frequency related to the fields of school, home and science, the CLIL subject. They also use more cognates and commit more lexical inconsistencies than adult learners, who in turn produce more general words in longer letters. We interpret our results in light of the relevant role of age and instructional program.
Funding statement: This work was suported by Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Grant Number: FFI2010-19334/FILO.
References
Agustín-Llach, Mа Pilar. 2011. Lexical errors and accuracy in foreign language writing. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781847694188Search in Google Scholar
Agustín-Llach, Mа Pilar & Melania Terrazas-Gallego. 2012. Development and gender differences in a second language. Estudios de Lingüística Inglesa Aplicada [Studies of English Applied Linguistics], 12. 45–75.Search in Google Scholar
Arnaud, Pierre J. L. 1984. The lexical richness of L2 written productions and the validity of vocabulary tests. In Terry Culhane, Christine Klein-Braley & Douglas K. Stevenson (eds.), Practice and problems in language testing, 14–28. Colchester: University of Essex.Search in Google Scholar
Bialystok, Ellen. 1997. The structure of age: In search of barriers to second language acquisition. Second Language Research 13(2). 116–137.10.1191/026765897677670241Search in Google Scholar
Celaya, Mа Luz & Yolanda Ruiz De Zarobe. 2010. First languages and age in CLIL and non-CLIL contexts. International CLIL Research Journal 1(3). http://www.icrj.eu/13/article6.htm.Search in Google Scholar
Celaya, Mа Luz & Mа Rosa Torras. 2001. L1 influence and EFL vocabulary. Do children rely more on L1 than adult learners? Proceedings of the XXV AEDEAN Conference. Granada: Universidad de Granada. CD format.Search in Google Scholar
Cenoz, Jasone. 2002. Age differences in foreign language learning. ITL Review of Applied Linguistics 135-136. 125–142.10.1075/itl.135-136.06cenSearch in Google Scholar
Cummins, Jim. 1979. Cognitive/Academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age question and some other matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism 19. 198–203.Search in Google Scholar
Cummins, Jim & Merril Swain. 1986. Linguistic interdependence: A central principle of bilingual education. In Jim Cummins & Merril Swain (eds.), Bilingualism in education: Aspects of theory, research and practice, 80–95. London: Longman.Search in Google Scholar
David, Annabelle. 2008. A developmental perspective on productive lexical knowledge in L2 oral interlanguage. Journal of French Language Studies 18(3). 315–331.10.1017/S0959269508003475Search in Google Scholar
DeKeyser, Robert. 2000. The robustness of Critical Period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22. 499–533.10.1017/S0272263100004022Search in Google Scholar
Durán, Pierre, David Malvern, Brian Richards & Ngoni Chipere. 2004. Developmental trends in lexical diversity. Applied Linguistics 25(2). 220–242.10.1093/applin/25.2.220Search in Google Scholar
Fernández, Almudena. 2015. Motivation and vocabulary breadth in CLIL and EFL contexts. Different age, same time of exposure. Complutense Journal of English Studies 79(23). 79–96.10.5209/rev_CJES.2015.v23.51214Search in Google Scholar
García Mayo, Mа Pilar & Mа Luisa García Lecumberri (eds.). 2003. Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781853596407Search in Google Scholar
Horst, Marlisle & Laura Collins. 2006. From Faible to strong: How does their Vocabulary grow?. The Canadian Modern Language Review 63(1). 83–106.10.3138/cmlr.63.1.83Search in Google Scholar
Housen, Alex, Michel Pierrard, Siska Van Daele & Bram Bulté. 2008. Investigating lexical proficiency development over time? the case of Dutch-speaking learners of French in Brussels. Journal of French Language Studies 18(3). 277–298.10.1017/S0959269508003451Search in Google Scholar
Hyltenstam, Kenneth. 1988. Lexical characteristics of near-native second-language learners of Swedish. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 9. 67–84.10.1080/01434632.1988.9994320Search in Google Scholar
Jarvis, Scott. 2002. Short texts, best-fitting curves and new measures of lexical diversity. Language Testing 19. 57–84.10.1191/0265532202lt220oaSearch in Google Scholar
Jasone., Cenoz. 2003. The influence of age on the acquisition of English: General proficiency, attitudes and code mixing. In Mа Pilar García Mayo & Mа Luisa García Lecumberri (eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language, 77–93. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781853596407-005Search in Google Scholar
Jiménez Catalán, Rosa Mа & Tess Fitzpatrick. 2014. Frequency profiles of EFL learners’ lexical availability. In Rosa Mа Jimenez Catalan (ed.), Lexical availability in English and Spanish as a second language, 83–100. Dordrecht: Springer.10.1007/978-94-007-7158-1_6Search in Google Scholar
Krashen, Stephen, Michael Long & Robin Scarcella. 1982. Age, rate, and eventual attainment in second language acquisition. In Stephen Krashen, Robin Scarcella & Michael Long (eds.), Child-adult differences in second language acquisition, 161–172. Rowley, Mas: Newbury House Publishers.Search in Google Scholar
Lasagabaster, David & Aintzane Doiz. 2003. Maturational constraints on foreign-language written production. In Mа Pilar García Mayo & Mа Luisa García Lecumberri (eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language, 136–160. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781853596407-008Search in Google Scholar
Laufer, Batia & Paul Nation. 1995. Vocabulary size and use: Lexical richness in L2 written production. Applied Linguistics 16(3). 307–323.10.1093/applin/16.3.307Search in Google Scholar
Lightbown, Patsy. 2008. Easy as pie? Children learning languages. Concordia Working Papers in Applied Linguistics 1. 5–29.Search in Google Scholar
MacIntyre, Peter, Susan Baker, Richard Clément & Leslie Donovan. 2002. Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning 52(3). 537–564.10.1111/1467-9922.00194Search in Google Scholar
Malvern, David & Brian Richards. 2002. Investigating accommodation in language proficiency interviews using a new measure of lexical diversity. Language Testing 19(1). 85–104.10.1191/0265532202lt221oaSearch in Google Scholar
Milton, Jim. 2008. French vocabulary breadth among learners in the British school and university system: Comparing knowledge over time. Journal of French Language Studies 18(3). 333–348.10.1017/S0959269508003487Search in Google Scholar
Miralpeix, Imma. 2006. Age and vocabulary acquisition in English as a foreign language (EFL). In Carmen Muñoz (ed.), Age and the rate of foreign language learning, 89–106. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781853598937-006Search in Google Scholar
Miralpeix, Imma. 2007. Lexical knowledge in instructed language learning: The effects of age and exposure. International Journal of English studies 7. 61–83.Search in Google Scholar
Muñoz, Carmen. 2001. Factores escolares e individuales en el aprendizaje formal de un idioma extranjero. In Susana Pastor Cesteros & Ventura Salazar García (eds.), Estudios de Lingüística. Anexo 1. Tendencias y Líneas de Investigación en Adquisición de Segundas Lenguas. Alicante: Departamento de Filología Española, Lingüística General y Teoría de la Literatura, Universidad de Alicante.Search in Google Scholar
Muñoz, Carmen (ed.). 2006. Age and the rate of foreign language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781853598937Search in Google Scholar
Muñoz, Carmen. 2008. Symmetries and asymmetries of age effects in naturalistic and instructed L2 learning. Applied Linguistics 29. 578–596.10.1093/applin/amm056Search in Google Scholar
Muñoz, Carmen & David Singleton. 2011. A critical review of age-related research on L2-attainment. Language Teaching 44(1). 1–35. http://journals.cambridge.org/lta/Muñoz.10.1017/S0261444810000327Search in Google Scholar
Naves, Teresa, Imma Miralpeix & Mа Luz Celaya. 2005. Who transfer more … and what? Cross-linguistic influence in relation to school grade and language dominance in EFL. International Journal of Multilingualism 2(2). 113–134.10.1080/14790710508668380Search in Google Scholar
Naves, Teresa & Imma Miralpeix. 2002. Short-term effects of age and exposure on writing development”. In Ignacio Palacios Martínez, Mа José López Couso, Patricia Fra López & Elena Seoane Posse (eds.), Fifty years of English Studies in Spain (1952-2002). A commemorative volume. Actas del XXVI Congreso de AEDEAN, 407–416. Santiago de Compostela: Universidad de Santiago de Compostela.Search in Google Scholar
Ojima, Shiro, Hiroko Matsuba-Kurita, Naoko Nakamura, Taihei Hoshino & Hiroko Hagiwara. 2011. Age and amount of exposure to a foreign language during childhood: Behavioral and ERP data on the semantic comprehension of spoken English by Japanese children. Neuroscience Research 70. 197–205.10.1016/j.neures.2011.01.018Search in Google Scholar
Ruiz De Zarobe, Yolanda. 2002. Edad y tipología pronominal en la adquisición del inglés como tercera lengua. In Ignacio Palacios Martínez, Mа José López Couso, Patricia Fra López & Elena Seoane Posse (eds.), Fifty years of English Studies in Spain (1952-2002). A commemorative volume. Actas del XXVI Congreso de AEDEAN, 417–428. Santiago de Compostela: Universidad de Santiago de Compostela.Search in Google Scholar
Ruiz De Zarobe, Yolanda. 2005a. Age and third language production: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Multilingualism 2(2). 105–112.10.1080/14790710508668379Search in Google Scholar
Ruiz De Zarobe, Yolanda. 2005b. Perspectiva longitudinal de la edad en producción escrita. Proceedings of the II Simposio Internacional de Bilingüismo: 333–341.Search in Google Scholar
Sanchez-Casas, Rosa Mа, Christian Davis & José E. García-Albea. 1992. Bilingual lexical processing: Exploring the cognate/non-cognate distinction. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology 4. 293–310.10.1080/09541449208406189Search in Google Scholar
Serrano, Raquel. 2012. Is intensive learning effective? Reflecting on the results from cognitive psychology and the SLA literature. In Carmen Muñoz (ed.), Intensive exposure experiences in second language learning, 3–23. Bristol; Buffalo: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781847698063-004Search in Google Scholar
Singleton, David. 1989. Language acquisition: The age factor. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.Search in Google Scholar
Thordardottir, Elin. 2011. The relationship between bilingual exposure and vocabulary Development. International Journal of Bilingualism 15(4). 426–445.10.1177/1367006911403202Search in Google Scholar
Tidball, Francoise & Jeannine Treffers-Daller. 2008. Analysing lexical richness in French learner language: What frequency lists and teacher judgements can tell us about basic and advanced words. Journal of French Language Studies 18(3). 299–313.10.1017/S0959269508003463Search in Google Scholar
Tonzar, Claudio, Lorella Lotto & Remo Job. 2009. L2 vocabulary acquisition in children: Effects of learning method and cognate status. Language Learning 59. 623–646.10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00519.xSearch in Google Scholar
Torras, Rosa Mа & Mа Luz Celaya. 2001. Age-related differences in the development of written production. An empirical study of EFL school learners. International Journal of English Studies 1(2). 103–126.Search in Google Scholar
Tragant, Elsa & Mia Victori. 2006. Reported strategy use and age. In Carmen Muñoz (ed.), Age and the rate of foreign language learning, 208–236. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781853598937-011Search in Google Scholar
Treffers-Daller, Jeannine, Michael Daller, David Malvern, Brian Richards, Paul Meara & Jim Milton (eds.). 2008. Knowledge and use of the lexicon in French as a second language. Journal of French Language Studies 18(3). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (Special issue 03). 269–276.10.1017/S095926950800344XSearch in Google Scholar
Victori, Mia & Elsa Tragant. 2003. Learner strategies: A cross-sectional and longitudinal study of primary and high-school EFL learners. In Mа Pilar García Mayo & Mа Luisa García Lecumberri (eds.), Age and the acquisition of English as a foreign language, 182–209. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.10.21832/9781853596407-010Search in Google Scholar
Villarreal, Izaskun. 2013. CLIL, age or something else? Paper presented at the 37th AEDEAN Conference, November 13-15 2013, Universidad de Oviedo.Search in Google Scholar
Yamada, Jun, Shigenobu Takatsuka, Nobuko Kotake & Junko Kurusu. 1980. On the optimum age for teaching foreign vocabulary to children. International Review of Applied Linguistics 18(3). 245–247.Search in Google Scholar
Yu, Guoxing. 2007. Lexical diversity in MELAB writing and speaking task performances. Spaan Fellow Working Papers in Second or Foreign Language Assessment 5. 79–116.Search in Google Scholar
Zareva, Alla, Paula Schwanenflugel & Yordanka Nikolova. 2005. Relationship between lexical competence and language proficiency: Variable sensitivity. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 27(4). 567–595.10.1017/S0272263105050254Search in Google Scholar
© 2018 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
