Abstract
This study investigated the development of the ability to interpret conversational implicatures in English as an L2. The study followed a cross-sectional design and used a methodologically innovative audio-visual interpretation task with an oral production component. By orally reporting their interpretations, participants demonstrated comprehension of conversational implicatures viewed in a video, rather than employing a predetermined response approach used in earlier studies, which neither explore nor reveal how L2 learners understand implicatures. Fifty participants, forty-five learners at three proficiency levels and five native speakers of English, took part in the study. The results indicated that the comprehension of conversational implicatures showed a significant improvement as L2 proficiency increased. Learner responses were additionally coded based on stages of implicature calculation, which demonstrated that not only learners’ correct interpretations but also their incorrect responses provide insights into their interlanguage development. Such a finding further illustrates the superiority of a free response approach over a predetermined one since the former approach can better shed light on L2 learners’ true pragmatic competence in conversational implicatures.
About the author
Yılmaz Köylü is a PhD candidate in the Department of Second Language Studies and the Department of Linguistics at Indiana University. His interests lie in the domains of first and second language acquisition, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and Turkish linguistics. He is particularly interested in the syntax-semantics interface, NP syntax and semantics, genericity, and mass/count noun distinction across languages.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Professor Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig for her extensive feedback and comments regarding the study design and analyses, as well as the insightful discussions I had with her on the earlier versions of this paper. I would also like to thank the audience at the annual meeting of the American Association for Applied Linguistics, held in Orlando, Florida, in 2016, where an earlier version of this paper was presented.
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Appendix
Detailed interview procedure and the audio-visual task
For the audio-visual oral production task, participants saw a brief written plot summary of the TV series Friends on the computer screen. In addition, at the beginning of each scene, they saw a brief written background on the scene. Below are the instructions, the general plot summary and background information and transcripts of all the scenes.
Friends
Instructions: In this interview, you will be shown 20 scenes from the TV series Friends. After each scene, there will be a question or a statement requiring a response. Please orally answer them when you see a prompt. Your answers will be sound-recorded.
Plot summary
Friends is a TV series that was popular in the 90’s. It is about humorous and entertaining events involving 5 friends (Monica, her brother Ross, Phoebe, Chandler and Joey) who live in New York City.
Transcripts for each scene
The underlined and italic parts at the end of each transcript are the parts that include the conversational implicature and that were repeated in the audio-visual oral production task.
Scene 0 (Sample item) – Background (Season 9 - Episode 5) In this scene, Joey and Phoebe are waiting to eat at a restaurant and their friends are late.
Waiter? All right, this is gonna go fast, so try to keep up. Risotto with shaved truffles and the rib steak with the golden chanterelles and the Bordelaise sauce unless any of that stuff I just said means “snails”.
It does not.
Tomato tart and which of the pastas would you recommend?
Oh, well they’re both exquisite.
Both it is. Thank you.
Oh, can I make a special request? Can you bring everything as it’s ready? Appetizers, entrees, we don’t care.
Hey!
I’ll wait to put your order in.
You guys are over an hour late. What happened to you two?
So sorry.
We got locked out of the apartment …
That’s a great story. Can I eat it?
Scene 1 – Background (Season 7 - Episode 2)
In this scene, Phoebe enters Ross’ class where Ross is teaching.
… that I had the idea for Jurassic Park first. Let’s take a look … Phoebe, what are you doing here?
I need to talk to you. It’s urgent. It’s about Monica and Chandler.
Oh, my God. Of course. Would you please excuse me for a moment? Do you know each other’s hometowns? Why don’t you … What’s going on?
Well, not much. I was just thinking that since they just got engaged, it would be nice if they have privacy. So could I just move in with you for a couple days?
Okay, sure. But what’s wrong with Monica and Chandler?
Nothing. Why?
Phoebe, you said it was urgent.
Yeah, it is. I am going to the movies and it starts in like five minutes.
Do you realize I have a classroom full of students?
Scene 2 – Background (Season 8 - Episode 11)
In this scene, Ross’ girlfriend Mona is talking about sending people holiday cards to celebrate the New Year.
Okay, here’s a good one of us.
That is a good one! It looks like a holiday card. With the tree in the middle and the skaters and the snow.
You know what, I always want to send out cards but I never do. Do you want to send this one out together?
Together? Like, to people?
Yeah. “Happy Holidays, from Mona and Ross”. It’ll be cute, okay?
Okay.
I gotta go to work. Call me later? Bye, guys.
Bye.
Congratulations! You just got married!
Scene 3 – Background (Season 5 - Episode 20)
In this scene, Monica is asking Rachel to pick up a few things from Ross’ apartment.
Rach, it’s me. Pick up!
What’s up?
I need more things to make margarita. I need some salt, some margarita mix and tequila.
So all we had was ice?
See if he has ice.
Scene 4 – Background (Season 10 - Episode 3)
In this scene, Ross is at a tanning salon and a man is explaining the procedure to him.
The person at the tanning salon: You’ll face the red light. When the light’s on, the spraying’s about to start, so close your eyes. When the spraying stops, count to five, pat yourself to avoid drip marks, then turn to get your back. Got it?
Spray, count, pat and turn. Spray, count and pat.
The person at the tanning salon: Wow, you catch on quick.
Well, I have a PhD.
Scene 5 – Background (Season 10 - Episode 3)
In this scene, Chandler sees Ross after Ross gets back from the tanning salon.
Hold on. There’s something different.
I went to that tanning place your wife suggested.
Was that place the sun?
(Season 5 - Episode 7)
In this scene, Ross moves in with Chandler, and Joey for a short time and they are looking for an apartment for Ross.
Well, I’m done with this. You want anything? Sports? International? Apartment listings?
I’ll take sports.
Mine!
All right, international.
That’s mine too. I’m Italian.
I could check apartment listings, though there’s never anything here.
Not even on page seven?
You’re right. Here’s an affordable place. Two bedroom, close to work. It’s available in five weeks.
What about that circled one?
It’s kind of expensive for a studio.
But it’s available now.
Scene 7 – Background (Season 9 - Episode 5)
In this scene, Ross and Rachel are locked outside their apartment and they are talking about their baby inside.
Well the super is not home. But my mother’s gonna be here, and she has the key.
I can’t wait that long. You have to do something. Knock that door down!
I would, but I bruise like a peach. Besides, you know, everything’s gonna be fine. The baby’s sleeping.
What if she jumps out of the bassinet?
Can’t hold her head up, but jumped.
Oh, my God! I left the water running!
You did not leave the water running. Please, pull yourself together, okay?
Well, did I leave the stove on?
You haven’t cooked since 1996.
Scene 8 – Background (Season 7 - Episode 8)
In this scene, the 5 friends are playing a game in which they are trying to write down the names of all the states in the USA.
Hey, everybody. Happy Thanksgiving.
No, no, no.
Are we keeping Thanksgiving a secret this year?
We’re playing a game I learned at work. You have to name all the states in six minutes.
What? That’s like insanely easy.
It’s harder than it sounds. You always forget one. Or in some cases, 14.
It’s a stupid game and I wasn’t playing against others, so technically, techincally I didn’t lose.
You forgot 14 states?
Nobody cares about the Dakotas!
Done with time to spare.
This may be a new world’s record.
I hate to lecture you guys but it’s disgraceful that a group of well-educated adults and Joey can’t name all the states.
Scene 9 – Background (Season 9 - Episode 20)
In this scene, Monica, Phoebe and Chandler are about to see a play that Chandler has seen before.
Hey, thank you so much for these tickets, Chandler.
This was a really important experience for me. I wanted to share it with you.
You’re so wonderful.
Why don’t you like me?
I can’t believe you guys bought that. Enjoy your slow death.
Scene 10 – Background (Season 4 - Episode 23)
In this scene, a tailor is fixing Monica’s dress.
Don’t worry, you’ll find some place to get married. Ouchh..
Sorry, lucky this dress is red.
Scene 11 – Background (Season 9 - Episode 20)
In this scene, Monica and Rachel are at a party.
Hey, you made it! All right! Glad you could make it. Thanks for coming.
Oh, my God. Kyle Lowder! Hi. I love you!
That’s why I didn’t invite you. You have to calm down, all right? Just get yourself a drink or something.
Oh, yeah, that’s what you want. My inhibitions lowered. Oh, my God, can you believe we’re surrounded by all this? I can barely control myself.
You might want to remember that you’re married.
Scene 12 – Background (Season 8 - Episode 4)In this scene, Ross is telling a story to one of his friends.
This is great wine.
It’s from France. In Europe. Western Europe. A few years ago I was backpacking across Western Europe.
Really?
Wait, it gets better. Yeah, I was in Barcelona.
I studied for a year in Barcelona.
Anyway, so I was hiking.
I love hiking!
Oh, that’s great! I was hiking along the foothills of Mount Tibidaybo.
I think it’s “Tibidabo”.
Ok, do you want to tell the story?
Scene 13 – Background (Season 8 - Episode 2)
In this scene, Phoebe pretends to be pregnant.
Pheebs, Listen, sit down, I got something I want to say. It’s a scary world out there, especially for a single mom. I always felt that you and I have a special bond. So, Phoebe Buffay, will you marry me?
Oh, my God! Oh, yeah, I’ll marry you.
You can’t marry him!
Your day’s over, it’s my turn.
Why can’t she marry me?
I can and I will.
She’s not pregnant. Rachel’s the one who’s pregnant.
Oh, my God!
Hey!
Phoebe I think he’d notice when you didn’t have a baby in 9 months
It’s Joey!
Scene 14 – Background (Season 4 - Episode 7)
In this scene, Ross’ friends listen to him play the keyboard.
Well, you know, that was terrific!
Really bitchin’.
Wow! It was so wow!
I left my helicopter sounds on another disk. I’ll be right back, ok?
God bless my dad for soundproofing the basement.
Scene 15 – Background (Season 7 - Episode 17)In this scene, Ross and Joey are talking about taking out the same woman for dinner.
Look, why don’t we just let her decide, okay? We’ll each go out with her one more time. And we’ll see who she likes best.
That sounds fair.
Maybe I’ll take her to that new French restaurant down the street.
Wait a second. We have to set a spending limit on the date. I don’t have the money to take her to a fancy place like that.
So let’s decide on the spending limit.
Yeah. … and a slice … six dollars?
I was thinking more like 100.
Okay. Can I borrow 94 dollars?
Scene 16 – Background (Season 10 - Episode 14)
In this scene, the 4 friends are having dinner when Ross walks in.
Thank you guys for having us over.
Oh yeah. This is fun couple’s night.
Yeah. I don’t know why we don’t hang out with married couples more often.
Hey you guys. I have great news.
Ross, we’re kind of in the middle of dinner here.
Scene 17 – Background (Season 5 - Episode 7)
In this scene, Ross is angry because he does not have a place to live.
Emily’s cousin kicked me out.
What?
Why?
When you are subletting an apartment from your wife’s cousin then you get a divorce, sometimes the cousin wants his apartment back.
How can they do that, didn’t you sign a lease?
Who needs a lease when it’s “family”?
Scene 18 – Background (Season 9 - Episode 5)
In this scene, Phoebe is talking about her birthday dinner.
Oh, hey, you guys, I couldn’t get a reservation for the night of my birthday so we’ll have to do dinner Thursday night.Joey:Thursday? But that’s Halloween.
Scene 19 – Background (Season 9 - Episode 20)
In this scene, Ross is talking about rules in his class.
Hi, I’m Ross Geller.
Oh, hi. I’m Professor Wheeler.
Oh, that’s, that’s. That’s nice.
It’s good to meet you. Thank you so much for taking the time to show me around.
No, it’s no big deal. If I weren’t doing this, I’d just, you know, be at the gym working out. Well, we should probably get going. We’ve got a lot of ground to cover.
Isn’t another professor supposed to come with us?
I don’t think so.
I’m pretty sure. A Professor Spafford from Cornell?
Well, he’s obviously late, and the rule in my class is: If you can’t come on time, then don’t come at all. An option that many of my students use.
Scene 20 – Background (Season 6 - Episode 19)
In this scene, Rachel is talking about going to a reception.
Do you guys know any cute guys?
Well, of course, I do. My good friend, Joey, over here.
I’m sorry. Thank you, Chandler.
Anyway, there’s a big charity ball this weekend and Ralph Lauren bought a table so I kind of have to go. But the thing is, I need to find a date.
What type of guy are you looking for?
Someone that has his own tux or the ability to rent a tux.
So he has to be a male who has at least $50.
Uhh, so close.
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