Hostname: page-component-8448b6f56d-m8qmq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-04-17T22:41:58.229Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Measuring bilingualism: The quest for a “bilingualism quotient”

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 November 2020

Viorica Marian Open the ORCID record for Viorica Marian [Opens in a new window]  and
Sayuri Hayakawa Open the ORCID record for Sayuri Hayakawa [Opens in a new window]
Viorica Marian*
Affiliation:
Northwestern University
Sayuri Hayakawa
Affiliation:
Northwestern University
*
*Corresponding author: E-mail: v-marian@northwestern.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The study of bilingualism has a history that extends from deciphering ancient multilingual texts to mapping the structure of the multilingual brain. The language experiences of individual bilinguals are equally diverse and characterized by unique contexts of acquisition and use that can shape not only sociocultural identity but also cognitive and neural function. Perhaps unsurprisingly, this variability in scholarly perspectives and language experiences has given rise to a range of methods for defining bilingualism. The goal of this article is to initiate a conversation about the utility of a more unified approach to how we think about, study, and measure bilingualism. Using concrete case studies, we illustrate the value of enhancing communication and streamlining terminology across researchers with different methodologies within questions, different questions within domains, and different domains within scientific inquiry. We specifically consider the utility and feasibility of a bilingualism quotient (BQ) construct, discuss the idea of a BQ relative to the well-established intelligence quotient, and include recommendations for next steps. We conclude that though the variability in language backgrounds and approaches to defining bilingualism presents significant challenges, concerted efforts to systematize and synthesize research across the field may enable the construction of a valid and generalizable index of multilingual experience.

Keywords

bilingualismindividual differenceslanguage experiencelanguage proficiency
Type
Original Article
Information
Applied Psycholinguistics , Volume 42 , Special Issue 2: Special Issue: Individual Differences in Bilingualism , March 2021 , pp. 527 - 548
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abutalebi, J., Della Rosa, P. A., Green, D. W., Hernandez, M., Scifo, P., Keim, R., Cappa, S. F., & Costa, A. (2011). Bilingualism tunes the anterior cingulate cortex for conflict monitoring. Cerebral Cortex, 22(9), 2076–2086.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adesope, O. O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T., & Ungerleider, C. (2010). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism. Review of Educational Research, 80(2), 207–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J. A., Mak, L., Chahi, A. K., & Bialystok, E. (2018). The language and social background questionnaire: Assessing degree of bilingualism in a diverse population. Behavior Research Methods, 50(1), 250–263.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bak, T. H., Long, M. R., Vega-Mendoza, M., & Sorace, A. (2016). Novelty, challenge, and practice: The impact of intensive language learning on attentional functions. PloS One, 11(4), e0153485.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bavelier, D., Green, C. S., Pouget, A., & Schrater, P. (2012). Brain plasticity through the life span: Learning to learn and action video games. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 35, 391–416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum, S., & Titone, D. (2014). Moving toward a neuroplasticity view of bilingualism, executive control, and aging. Applied Psycholinguistics, 35(5), 857–894.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beaton, D. E., Bombardier, C., Guillemin, F., & Ferraz, M. B. (2000). Guidelines for the process of cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures. Spine, 25(24), 3186–3191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bedore, L. M., Peña, E. D., Joyner, D., & Macken, C. (2011). Parent and teacher rating of bilingual language proficiency and language development concerns. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 14(5), 489–511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bedore, L. M., Peña, E. D., Summers, C. L., Boerger, K. M., Resendiz, M. D., Greene, K., Bohman, T. M., & Gillam, R. B. (2012). The measure matters: Language dominance profiles across measures in Spanish–English bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(3), 616–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benmamoun, E., Montrul, S., & Polinsky, M. (2013). Heritage languages and their speakers: Opportunities and challenges for linguistics. Theoretical Linguistics, 39, 129–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E. (2009). Bilingualism: The good, the bad, and the indifferent. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12(1), 3–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binet, A. (1900). La Suggestibilité. Paris: Schleicher Freres.Google Scholar
Binet, A. (1905). The development of intelligence in children (the Binet–Simon test). Trans. Kite, Elizabeth. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins.Google Scholar
Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective overview. Language Learning, 56, 9–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blumenfeld, H. K., & Marian, V. (2014). Cognitive control in bilinguals: Advantages in Stimulus–Stimulus inhibition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(3), 610–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brantmeier, C., Vanderplank, R., & Strube, M. (2012). What about me? Individual self-assessment by skill and level of language instruction. System, 40(1), 144–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byers-Heinlein, K., Esposito, E. G., Winsler, A., Marian, V., Castro, D. C., & Luk, G. (2019). The case for measuring and reporting bilingualism in developmental research. Collabra: Psychology, 5(1), 37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colcombe, S., & Kramer, A. F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Science, 14(2), 125–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeAnda, S., Bosch, L., Poulin-Dubois, D., Zesiger, P., & Friend, M. (2016). The language exposure assessment tool: Quantifying language exposure in infants and children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 59(6), 1346–1356.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35(1), 13–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Bruin, A. (2019). Not all bilinguals are the same: A call for more detailed assessments and descriptions of bilingual experiences. Behavioral Sciences, 9(3), 33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Cat, C., Gusnanto, A. & Serratrice, L. (2018). Identifying a threshold for the executive function advantage in bilingual children. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(1), 119–151. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263116000486 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeKeyser, R. M. (2005). What makes learning second-language grammar difficult? A review of issues. Language Learning, 55(S1), 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delgado, P., Guerrero, G., Goggin, J. P., & Ellis, B. B. (1999). Self-assessment of linguistic skills by bilingual Hispanics. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 21(1), 31–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., Bialystok, E., & Pliatsikas, C. (2019a). Redefining bilingualism as a spectrum of experiences that differentially affects brain structure and function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(15), 7565–7574.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., & Pliatsikas, C. (2019b). Linguistic immersion and structural effects on the bilingual brain: A longitudinal study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(5), 1160–1175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dick, A. S., Garcia, N. L., Pruden, S. M., Thompson, W. K., Hawes, S. W., Sutherland, M. T., Riedel, M. C., Laird, A. R., & Gonzalez, R. (2019). No evidence for a bilingual executive function advantage in the nationally representative ABCD study. Nature Human Behaviour, 3, 692–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1997). PPVT-III: Peabody picture vocabulary test. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Edele, A., Seuring, J., Kristen, C., & Stanat, P. (2015). Why bother with testing? The validity of immigrants’ self-assessed language proficiency. Social Science Research, 52, 99–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frey, M. C., & Detterman, D. K. (2004). Scholastic assessment or g? The relationship between the scholastic assessment test and general cognitive ability. Psychological Science, 15(6), 373–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garcia, L. N., Guerrero-Mosquera, C., Colomer, M., & Sebastian-Galles, N. (2018). Evoked and oscillatory EEG activity differentiates language discrimination in young monolingual and bilingual infants. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 2770.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gilkerson, J., & Richards, J. A. (2008). The LENA Developmental Snapshot (Report No. LTR-07-2). Retrieved from LENA Foundation website: http://www.lenafoundation.org/TechReport.aspx/Snapshot/LTR-07-2 Google Scholar
Gollan, T. H., Weissberger, G. H., Runnqvist, E., Montoya, R. I., & Cera, C. M. (2012). Self-ratings of spoken language dominance: A Multilingual Naming Test (MINT) and preliminary norms for young and aging Spanish–English bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(3), 594–615.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gullifer, J. W., & Titone, D. (2019). Characterizing the social diversity of bilingualism using language entropy. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 94(1), 1–18.Google Scholar
Gutiérrez-Clellen, V. F., & Kreiter, J. (2003). Understanding child bilingual acquisition using parent and teacher reports. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24(2), 267–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutiérrez-Clellen, V. F., & Peña, E. (2001). Dynamic assessment of diverse children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 32, 212–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartanto, A., & Yang, H. (2019). Does early active bilingualism enhance inhibitory control and monitoring? A propensity-matching analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 45(2), 360–378.Google ScholarPubMed
Herrnstein, R. J., & Murray, C. A. (1996). The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Hilchey, M. D., & Klein, R. M. (2011). Are there bilingual advantages on nonlinguistic interference tasks? Implications for the plasticity of executive control processes. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18(4), 625–658.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hope, T. M. (2015). The bilingual cognitive advantage: no smoke without fire. AIMS Neuroscience, 2(2), 58–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H. (2012). The construct of language proficiency in the study of bilingualism from a cognitive perspective. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(2), 422–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iverson, M., & Miller, D. (2017). Language attrition and maintenance: Two sides of the same coin? Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 7(6), 704–708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janus, M., Lee, Y., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2016). Effects of short-term music and second-language training on executive control. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 144, 84–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Judy, T., Putnam, M. T., & Rothman, J. (2018). When bilingualism is the common factor: Switch reference at the junction of competence and performance in both second language and heritage language performance. Journal of Language Contact, 11(3), 590–616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jylkkä, J., Soveri, A., Laine, M., & Lehtonen, M. (2020). Assessing bilingual language switching behavior with Ecological Momentary Assessment. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(2), 309–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, E., Goodglass, H., & Weintraub, S. (1978). Boston Naming Test. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.Google Scholar
Kaushanskaya, M., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Marian, V. (2019). The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Ten years later. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Kaushanskaya, M., & Marian, V. (2009). The bilingual advantage in novel word learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16(4), 705–710.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaushanskaya, M., & Prior, A. (2015). Variability in the effects of bilingualism on cognition: It is not just about cognition, it is also about bilingualism. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(1), 27–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kondo-Brown, K. (2003). Heritage language instruction for post-secondary students from immigrant backgrounds. Heritage Language Journal, 1(1), 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kondo-Brown, K. (2005). Differences in language skills: Heritage language learner subgroups and foreign language learners. The Modern Language Journal, 89(4), 563–581.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krizman, J., Skoe, E., Marian, V., & Kraus, N. (2014). Bilingualism increases neural response consistency and attentional control: Evidence for sensory and cognitive coupling. Brain and Language, 128(1), 34–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kupisch, T., & Rothman, J. (2018). Terminology matters! Why difference is not incompleteness and how early child bilinguals are heritage speakers. International Journal of Bilingualism, 22(5), 564–582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leivada, E., Westergaard, M., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Rothman, J. (2020). On the phantom-like appearance of bilingualism effects on neurocognition: (How) should we proceed? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1–14.Google Scholar
Lemhöfer, K., & Broersma, M. (2012). Introducing LexTALE: A quick and valid lexical test for advanced learners of English. Behavior Research Methods, 44(2), 325–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, P., Sepanski, S., & Zhao, X. (2006). Language history questionnaire: A web-based interface for bilingual research. Behavior Research Methods, 38(2), 202–210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linck, J., & Cunnings, I. (2015) The utility and application of mixed-effects models in second language research. Language Learning, 65(S1), 185–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, L., & Kager, R. (2017). Perception of tones by bilingual infants learning non-tone languages. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20(3), 561–575.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 605–621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maess, B., Koelsch, S., Gunter, T. C., & Friederici, A. D. (2001). Musical syntax is processed in Broca’s area: an MEG study. Nature Neuroscience, 4(5), 540–545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marian, V. (2018). Bilingual research methods. In Altarriba, J. & Heredia, R. R. (Eds.), An introduction to bilingualism (pp. 12–36). New York, NY: Routledge. Google Scholar
Marian, V., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Kaushanskaya, M. (2007). The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing language profiles in bilinguals and multilinguals. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50(4), 940–967.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mehl, M. R., Pennebaker, J. W., Crow, D. M., Dabbs, J., & Price, J. H. (2001). The Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR): A device for sampling naturalistic daily activities and conversations. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 33(4), 517–523.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, D., & Rothman, J. (2020). You win some, you lose some: Comprehension and event-related potential evidence for L1 attrition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(4), 869–883.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montrul, S., & Perpiñán, S. (2011). Assessing differences and similarities between instructed heritage language learners and L2 learners in their knowledge of Spanish tense-aspect and mood (TAM) morphology. Heritage Language Journal, 8(1), 90–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neisser, U., Boodoo, G., Bouchard, T. J. Jr, Boykin, A. W., Brody, N., Ceci, S. J., Halpern, D. F., Loehlin, J. C., Perloff, R., Sternberg, R. J., & Urbina, S. (1996). Intelligence: knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist, 51(2), 77–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417–528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. Essex, UK: Pearson Education Limited.Google Scholar
Oh, J. S., & Au, T. K. F. (2005). Learning Spanish as a heritage language: The role of sociocultural background variables. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 18(3), 229–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paap, K. R., & Greenberg, Z. I. (2013). There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Cognitive Psychology, 66(2), 232–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paradis, J., Emmerzael, K., & Duncan, T. S. (2010). Assessment of English language learners: Using parent report on first language development. Journal of Communication Disorders, 43(6), 474–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parbery-Clark, A., Skoe, E., & Kraus, N. (2009). Musical experience limits the degradative effects of background noise on the neural processing of sound. Journal of Neuroscience, 29(45), 14100–14107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patel, A. D. (2003). Language, music, syntax and the brain. Nature Neuroscience, 6(7), 674–681.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peng, P., Wang, T., Wang, C., & Lin, X. (2019). A meta-analysis on the relation between fluid intelligence and reading/mathematics: Effects of tasks, age, and social economics status. Psychological Bulletin, 145(2), 189–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porte, G. (Ed.). (2012). Replication research in applied linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Potowski, K. (2004). Student Spanish use and investment in a dual immersion classroom: Implications for second language acquisition and heritage language maintenance. The Modern Language Journal, 88(1), 75–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potowski, K., Parada, M., & Morgan-Short, K. (2012). Developing an online placement exam for Spanish heritage speakers and L2 students. Heritage Language Journal, 9(1), 51–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, M. T., Kupisch, T., & y Cabo, D. P. (2018). Different situations, similar outcomes. In Miller, D., Bayram, F., Rothman, J., & Serratrice, L. (Eds.), Bilingual cognition and language: The state of the science across its subfields (Vol. 54, pp. 251–280). Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raven, J. C. (1936). Mental tests used in genetic studies: The performance of related individuals on tests mainly educative and mainly reproductive (MSc Thesis, University of London).Google Scholar
Ressel, V., Pallier, C., Ventura-Campos, N., Díaz, B., Roessler, A., Ávila, C., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2012). An effect of bilingualism on the auditory cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(47), 16597–16601.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rindermann, H., Flores-Mendoza, C., & Mansur-Alves, M. (2010). Reciprocal effects between fluid and crystallized intelligence and their dependence on parents’ socioeconomic status and education. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 544–548.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rodriguez-Fornells, A., Kramer, U., Lorenzo-Seva, U., Festman, J., & Münte, T. F. (2012). Self-assessment of individual differences in language switching. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, S. (1998). Self-assessment in second language testing: A meta-analysis and analysis of experiential factors. Language Testing, 15(1), 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sabourin, L., Leclerc, J. C., Lapierre, M., Burkholder, M., & Brien, C. (2016). The language background questionnaire in L2 research: Teasing apart the variables. In Annual Meeting of the Canadian Linguistics Association, Calgary, Canada.Google Scholar
Sadakata, M., Weidema, J. L., & Honing, H. (2020). Parallel pitch processing in speech and melody: A study of the interference of musical melody on lexical pitch perception in speakers of Mandarin. PLOS One, 15(3), e0229109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schellenberg, E. G. (2019). Correlation = causation? Music training, psychology, and neuroscience. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000263 Google Scholar
Schroeder, S. R., Marian, V., Shook, A., & Bartolotti, J. (2016). Bilingualism and musicianship enhance cognitive control. Neural Plasticity, 2016, e4058620.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spearman, C. (1904). General intelligence: objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology, 15(2), 201–293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L., & Bundy, D. A. (2001). The predictive value of IQ. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47, 1–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M., LeDoux, J. M., Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2002). Validity of IQ-discrepancy classifications of reading disabilities: A meta-analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 39(2), 469–518.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tabori, A. A. T., Mech, E. N., & Atagi, N. (2018). Exploiting language variation to better understand the cognitive consequences of bilingualism. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1686.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomoschuk, B., Ferreira, V. S., & Gollan, T. H. (2019). When a seven is not a seven: Self-ratings of bilingual language proficiency differ between and within language populations. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(3), 516–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Unsworth, S., & Blom, E. (2010). Comparing L1 children, L2 children and L2 adults. Experimental Methods in Language Acquisition Research, 27, 201–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valian, V. (2014). Bilingualism and cognition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(1), 3–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valian, V. (2015). Bilingualism and cognition: A focus on mechanisms. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(1), 47–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, K. (1997). Expressive Vocabulary Test. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Wyche, K. F., Saegert, S. C., Adler, N. E., Bullock, H. E., Cauce, A. M., & Liu, W. M. (2019). Report of the APA task force on socioeconomic status. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Zhao, T. C., & Kuhl, P. K. (2016). Musical intervention enhances infants’ neural processing of temporal structure in music and speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(19), 5212–5217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed