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Using a controversy about health, biology, and indigenous knowledge to promote undergraduates’ awareness of the importance of respecting the traditions and beliefs of indigenous communities: the case of paragonimiasis in Colombia

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Abstract

Paragonimiasis is an illness that involves both humans and animals. It is caused by parasites from the genus Paragonimus (Trematoda: Troglotrematidae). The illness is endemic to tropical and subtropical countries in Asia, Africa, and America, with different species being responsible in different areas. In Colombia, members of the Indigenous Embera community become infected when they eat raw crustaceans which contain the metacercarian form of the parasite, which lives in the lungs, leading to hemoptysis (bloodstained phlegm in the lungs). Eating raw crustaceans is part of the Embera traditions and beliefs. This article describes the effect of a teaching–learning sequence (TLS) based on a controversy about health, biology, and indigenous knowledge (IK) in promoting undergraduates’ awareness of the importance of respecting the traditions and beliefs of indigenous communities. It examines the written and oral arguments produced by 120 university students (59 females and 61 males, 16–28 years old) in Colombia during a complete TLS supervised by the same instructor. The data used in this analysis were derived from students’ written responses and audio recordings. The first aim of this study was to provide evidence that a controversial issue combining health, biology, and IK could be used to promote students’ awareness of the importance of respecting the traditions and beliefs of indigenous communities. The second objective was to assess the effectiveness of the TLS to engage students in argumentative classroom interactions (such as debates) relating to a controversial issue. The findings show that this issue can be useful for promoting undergraduates’ awareness of the importance of respecting the traditions and beliefs of indigenous communities.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are very deeply indebted to the university students at the Biology of Organisms course for allowing them to investigate the activities in which they were engaged. Funding support from the Vice-Presidency of Research and Creation, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia, is gratefully acknowledged.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Vice-Presidency of Research and Creation, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

    Pablo Antonio Archila

  2. Department of Biological Sciences, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

    Jorge Molina

  3. School of Education, Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia

    Anne-Marie Truscott de Mejía

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  1. Pablo Antonio Archila
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  2. Jorge Molina
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Correspondence to Pablo Antonio Archila.

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Appendix: questionnaire [text adapted from Vélez and Velásquez (2002)]

Appendix: questionnaire [text adapted from Vélez and Velásquez (2002)]

Part one

Paragonimiasis is an illness which affects both humans and animals (zoonosis). It is produced by parasites from the genus Paragonimus (Trematoda: Troglotrematidae). Their life cycle takes place in two intermediary hosts (where the immature stages of the parasite are found): a mollusk and a freshwater crustacean, and in a definitive host (where the adult parasites are found), which is either a wild or domestic mammal. Humans become infected when they eat raw crustaceans which contain the metacercarian form of the parasite, which lives in the lungs, leading to hemoptysis (bloodstained phlegm in the lungs). The illness is endemic in tropical and subtropical countries in Asia, Africa, and America. It affects mainly those under 25 years old.

The illness manifests itself in coughing, hemoptoic sputum and pain in the thorax and may be confused with other pulmonary infections, such as tuberculosis and some types of pneumonia. However, in contrast to what happens with tuberculosis, most patients maintain an adequate general state and only in a few cases is there evidence of dyspnoea, fever, pleural pain and anorexia. Moreover, Chai (2013) highlights the fact that the parasite “frequently invades other visceral organs, including the brain, spinal cord, and abdominal organs (Miyazaki 1991; Blair et al. 2007)” (p. 283).

The life cycle of the parasite

The life cycle of the parasite is shown in Fig. 1. The definitive host lodges the adult parasite in the lung, and through sputum and feces eliminates the parasite's eggs, which need a period of 2–9 weeks to form embryos in the environment and terminate their first larval stage in the form of miracide. This lives in the water for a short time, evidences ciliary movement and swims until it finds and penetrates the first intermediary host.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Parasite's life cycle

Full size image

The first host is a gasteropodic mollusk. The miracide penetrates it by means of a tegument. Inside the snail, the miracide emigrates to the hepatopancreas and is transformed into a sporocyst and then begins vegetative reproduction in its interior and later the development of rediae, which in turn multiply and generate cercariae, which perforate the tegument of the mollusks and emerge outside, where they swim until they find the next host, a crustacean. Here, they develop metacecarias in intestinal diverticula, in the muscles, the paws and, at times, in the gills.

Mammals, including human beings, get infected when they eat the raw crabs or when they become contaminated with the metacecarias. These reach the intestine, penetrate the intestinal wall and fall into the peritoneal cavity. Thanks to a special tropism, they arrive at the diaphragm, go through it and reach the pulmonary parenchyma. They become adult parasites, remaining there for several years, and produce nodules which contain a large number of eggs. When the nodules open in the bronchi or bronchioles, the eggs come out by means of expectoration or they may be swallowed, in which case they are eliminated from the body with the feces. If they manage to reach water, they find the right environment to produce embryos and they will start their life cycle again.

Treatment

Few drugs have been shown to be effective in the treatment of paragonimiasis. Currently praziquantel and bithionol are used. In recent years, there have been trials carried out with niclofolane, which is a product used in veterinary science for fascioliasis, with promising results. However, there is a need for clinical trials about their efficacy and security in humans.

Forecast y and prevention

In most cases the forecast is favorable, even without treatment, but when the worms reach the brain they cause different illnesses that may prove fatal. The programs for the prevention of paragonimiasis involve promoting changes in the traditional methods used to prepare food, using safe techniques for safe cooking, as well as the correct handling of food which has been potentially contaminated by metacecarias. There is also an effort to control the growth of the mollusk population (the first intermediary host) by means of irrigations with molluscicides in the freshwater ecosystems or by physically altering them (drainage). Controlling the crab population has not been considered because they are part of the food resources of the local communities.

In Asia and in Africa massive chemotherapy with praziquantel and bithonol has been used as a way of controlling paragonimiasis. This has been shown to be an effective method in endemic areas, particularly when complemented with intense health educational programs and the installation of toilets. The correct removal of excreta is fundamental to reduce contamination of the aquatic ecosystems which serve as habitats to the snail and crustaceans which are involved in the parasite's life cycle.

The cultural meaning of the swallowing of crabs for the indigenous Embera community

Traditionally, Embera men have been valued as hunters and fishermen. They have carried out hunting on an individual basis, during the day. The most highly valued prey are wild pigs or peccaries, deer, guaguas and ñeques or agoutis. With respect to birds, they prefer peacocks, turkeys and partridges. They consider armadillos, monkeys, squirrels and -in some regions- sloths, anteaters and felines as less important. They also eat iguanas, turtles, and crabs as well as the larvae of a coleopterous called mojojoy.

When Embera children learn to walk, they accompany relatives to the nearby streams next to small dairy farms looking for small sources of proteins such as crabs, which are thought of as a delicacy. This explains the appearance of paragonimiasis in 3-year-old boys and girls. The women look after the crops, as well as raising pigs and birds and the manual catching of small fish, usually with the help of the children. The men go out to the hills in order to hunt and fish. The Emberas do not like to eat without meat, as they feel that without meat there is no food. Sometimes, if there is no meat the women refuse to cook and they do so only once a day, which means that there is constant pressure on the hunters, or, in other words, the married men. The social prestige associated with men derives mainly from their efficiency as hunters. In the Embera culture, children are encouraged to eat crabs, snails, and fried fish. However, this custom has been relegated to a later stage of development, where this type of food is eaten raw. In addition to the idea of food to calm hunger, this culture believes that by eating substances originating from animals, man will acquire certain qualities which belong to animals. Eating crabs functions, to some extent, as a mechanism of appropriation and modification of status in both males and females in this indigenous community. Masculinity is associated with the image of the hunter. By eating crabs, it is thought that boys or males (choose one) will be able to develop the stealth necessary to surprise the animals during the hunt and that the men will become skillful in fighting. It is vital for the male Embera to be a good hunter. When his first son is born, he acquires the status of hunter.

  1. 1.

    In your opinion, does Fig. 1 adequately represent the cycle of the illness? Explain why or why not.

    1. a.

      Yes

    2. b.

      No

Part two

  1. 2.

    In your opinion, what is the solution that should be adopted to treat paragonimiasis in the Embera culture, without affecting its traditions and beliefs? (You can choose more than one option).

    1. a.

      Provide drugs like praziquantel and bithionol.

    2. b.

      Promote changes in traditional methods of food preparation.

    3. c.

      Control the growth of the snail population (the first intermediate host).

    4. d.

      Encourage local people not to eat crabs.

    5. e.

      Activate intensive programs of health education.

    6. f.

      Provide toilets.

    7. g.

      Eliminate the water sources where snail and crabs live.

  2. 3.

    Why did you make that decision?

Part three

Having concluded the small-group debate and the whole-class debate, answer the following questions.

  1. 4.

    In your opinion, what is the solution that should be adopted to treat paragonimiasis in the Embera culture, without affecting its traditions and beliefs? You can choose more than one option).

    1. a.

      Provide drugs like praziquantel and bithionol.

    2. b.

      Promote changes in traditional methods of food preparation.

    3. c.

      Control the growth of the snail population (the first intermediate host).

    4. d.

      Encourage local people not to eat crabs.

    5. e.

      Activate intensive programs of health education.

    6. f.

      Provide toilets.

    7. g.

      Eliminate the water sources where snail and crabs live.

  2. 5.

    Why did you make that decision?

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Archila, P.A., Molina, J. & Truscott de Mejía, AM. Using a controversy about health, biology, and indigenous knowledge to promote undergraduates’ awareness of the importance of respecting the traditions and beliefs of indigenous communities: the case of paragonimiasis in Colombia. Cult Stud of Sci Educ 16, 141–171 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-020-09978-4

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11422-020-09978-4

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