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Examining the Relation Between Gender Nonconformity and Psychological Well-Being in Children: The Roles of Peers and Parents

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Abstract

No study to date has simultaneously tested how poor peer relations, generic risk factors, and parental attitudes impact the behavioral and emotional challenges of children who vary in their gender expression. In a community sample, the present study investigated various hypothesized psychosocial and generic risk factors regarding the association between childhood gender nonconformity (GNC) and psychological well-being. Canadian parents/guardians reported on their children aged 6–12 years (N = 1719, 48.8% assigned male at birth) regarding their child’s GNC, measured by the Gender Identity Questionnaire for Children; behavioral and emotional challenges, measured by the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL); and peer relations, measured by the CBCL and Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire. Parent/guardian gender-stereotypical attitudes toward child-rearing were assessed using an adapted version of the Child-Rearing Sex Role Attitude Scale, and attachment between the parent/guardian and child was measured with an adapted version of the Child-Rearing Practices Report. Based on regression analyses, GNC was related to elevated behavioral and emotional challenges, and this association was stronger for those who experienced poor peer relations as well as for those whose parents/guardians endorsed gender-stereotyped attitudes and were less willing to serve as a secure base for the child. Recommendations are provided for ways in which social environments can be altered to improve psychological well-being among gender-nonconforming children.

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Notes

  1. We recognize that the term “problems” is used in the Child Behavior Checklist Manual and Strength and Difficulties Peer Problems Subscale rather than the word “challenges.” We specifically chose to replace the word “problems” with “challenges” in this article when describing these measures in order to use maximally inclusive and minimally stigmatizing language. Please refer to our “Method” section for a full description of the measures used in the current study.

  2. We did not mean center our continuous predictor variables in the regressions reported in Tables 4 and 5. The regressions with and without mean centering produced very similar results, and mean centering has been shown to be ineffective at reducing collinearity problems in moderated regressions (Echambadi & Hess, 2007). For reference, regression results using mean centered continuous predictor variables are included in the Supplemental Material.

  3. Please see Supplementary Material for correlations by sex assigned at birth, including correlations between the GIQC-deviation from the mean term and other variables of interest for children AFAB.

  4. Although we excluded children in the present study whose parents reported that they had received a mental health diagnosis, we assessed how our CBCL total challenges score differed between children with versus without a mental health diagnosis. Leaving all other exclusion criteria in place, we found that the 1719 children who did not have a mental health diagnosis had a mean (SD) CBCL total challenges score of 24.39 (19.21), whereas the 400 children who did have a mental health diagnosis had a mean (SD) CBCL total challenges score of 52.26 (28.14).

  5. Only one peer scale was entered into the regression analysis because the two peer relations variables were highly correlated (r = .61). Given that the CBCL-derived metric of poor peer relations was used in previous research (e.g., Cohen-Kettenis et al., 2003; Steensma et al., 2014; Zucker et al., 1997) and showed better psychometric properties, the measure of peer challenges from the SDQ was excluded from regression analysis. Alongside the regressions presented, we also ran regressions that included SDQ peer challenges in place of CBCL poor peer relations. The results were similar independent of which peer scale was used.

  6. Removal of two outliers reduced the correlation for children AMAB, but it remained statistically significant, r = .19, p < .001. For children AFAB, the correlation remained non-significant, r = −.01, p = .843.

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Acknowledgements

LNM was supported by a Canada Graduate Scholarships-Master’s award from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada. ANN and AS were supported by SSHRC Undergraduate Research Awards. This research was supported by a Research and Scholarly Activity Fund award from the Office of the Vice Principal of Research at the University of Toronto Mississauga and by a SSHRC Insight Development Grant awarded to DPV.

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  1. Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada

    Laura N. MacMullin, Lisa M. Bokeloh, A. Natisha Nabbijohn, Alanna Santarossa, Anna I. R. van der Miesen, Diana E. Peragine & Doug P. VanderLaan

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany

    Lisa M. Bokeloh

  3. Center of Expertise on Gender Dysphoria, VU Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Anna I. R. van der Miesen

  4. Child and Youth Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada

    Doug P. VanderLaan

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MacMullin, L.N., Bokeloh, L.M., Nabbijohn, A.N. et al. Examining the Relation Between Gender Nonconformity and Psychological Well-Being in Children: The Roles of Peers and Parents. Arch Sex Behav 50, 823–841 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01832-6

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