Abstract
Major new multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) have entered into force in 2016, including the Paris Agreement (PA) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) with nationally determined contributions (NDCs) for greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction, the Kigali Amendment (KA) to the Montreal Protocol with a phase-down schedule for HFC production and use in all countries as well as the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA) under the International Civil Aviation Organization, an offset mechanism for GHG emissions. Regarding climate change mitigation, these MEAs are implicitly and explicitly linked to each other. However, the interaction effects between them have not yet been studied. We apply document analysis to assess the following question: how does the MEA interplay impact the scope and effectiveness of international market-based climate policy instruments defined in Article 6 of the PA (Paris Mechanisms) regarding NDC achievement? The Paris Mechanisms can generate early reductions in HFCs that lower the KA baseline and thus the entire phase-down schedule, thereby generating long-term GHG mitigation. Reduction in HFC-23—a large, controversial source of carbon credits under the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)—is now mandated through the KA and thus no longer available for international market mechanisms. If it accepts CDM credits predating 2020, CORSIA will not generate demand for emission units generated by the Article 6 mechanisms and thus not impact their effectiveness. Otherwise, CORSIA demand for Article 6 credits enhances effectiveness, provided that ‘double counting’ of credits is prevented through corresponding adjustments.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Source: Authors’ own elaboration
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Voluntary carbon standards like Verra or the Gold Standard have been established and governed by non-state actors. By contrast, the CDM and JI are being governed formally under the Kyoto Protocol and therefore the authority of MEAs.
GWP value relative to CO2, expressed in a 100-year time frame.
Developing countries and those countries whose annual level of consumption of ODS is less than 0.3 kg per capita. 147 of the 197 Parties currently meet this definition provided in Art. 5 of the MP (Deol et al. 2015).
Abbreviations
- Art.:
-
Article
- CA:
-
Cooperative Approach
- CBD:
-
Convention on Biological Diversity
- CBDR:
-
Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
- CDM:
-
Clean Development Mechanism
- CDM EB:
-
Clean Development Mechanism Executive Board
- CFC:
-
Chlorofluorocarbon
- CO2e:
-
Carbon dioxide equivalent
- CORSIA:
-
Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation
- EPA:
-
Environmental Protection Agency
- EU:
-
European Union
- EU ETS:
-
European Union Emissions Trading System
- GCF:
-
Green Climate Fund
- GEF:
-
Global Environment Facility
- GHG:
-
Greenhouse gas
- GWP:
-
Global warming potential
- HCFC:
-
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
- HFC:
-
Hydrofluorocarbon
- ICAO:
-
International Civil Aviation Organization
- IGSD:
-
Institute for Governance and Sustainable Development
- IISD:
-
International Institute for Sustainable Development
- IPCC:
-
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
- KA:
-
Kigali Amendment
- KP:
-
Kyoto Protocol
- MEA:
-
Multilateral Environmental Agreement
- MP:
-
Montreal Protocol
- MP Fund:
-
Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol
- MRV:
-
Monitoring, reporting and verification
- NDC:
-
Nationally determined contribution
- NODS:
-
Non-ozone-depleting substance
- ODP:
-
Ozone-depleting potential
- ODS:
-
Ozone-depleting substance
- PA:
-
Paris Agreement
- PUF:
-
Poly urethane foam
- RACF:
-
Refrigeration, air-conditioning and foam
- SARP:
-
Standards and Recommended Practice
- SDM:
-
Sustainable Development Mechanism
- TABEK:
-
Transformative Ambitionssteigerung – Der Beitrag effektiver Klimapolitikinstrumente
- TRIPS:
-
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
- UN:
-
United Nations
- UNEP:
-
United Nations Environment Programme
- UNEP DTU:
-
United Nations Environment Programme Danish Technical University
- UNFCCC:
-
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
- USD:
-
United States Dollar
- VC:
-
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
- WMO:
-
World Meteorological Organization
References
Biermann, F., Pattberg, P., van Asselt, H., & Zelli, F. (2009). The fragmentation of global governance architectures: A framework for analysis. Global Environmental Politics,9(4), 14–40.
CDM EB. (2017). TOOL29: Determination of standardized baselines for energy efficient refrigerators and air-conditioners. Methodological tool, version 01.0. CDM-EB97-A04. Retrieved October 24, 2018, from https://cdm.unfccc.int/methodologies/PAmethodologies/tools/am-tool-29-v1.pdf.
Cseh, A. (2019). Aligning climate action with the self-interest and short-term dominated priorities of decision-makers. Climate Policy,19(2), 139–147.
Deol, B., Andersen, S., Chaturvedi, V., Jaiswal, A., & Martin Dilley, S. (2015). Amending the Montreal Protocol. Draft Discussion Paper. CEEW, IGSD, NRDC. Retrieved December 14, 2018, from http://www.igsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/AmendingtheMontrealProtocol.pdf.
EPA. (2013). Global mitigation of non-CO 2greenhouse gases: 2010–2030. Washington, DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved November 26, from https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-06/documents/mac_report_2013.pdf.
Gehring, T., & Oberthür, S. (2006). Institutional interaction in global environmental governance: The case of the Cartagena Protocol and the World Trade Organization. Global Environmental Politics,6(2), 1–31.
Gomar, G. (2016). Environmental policy integration among multilateral environmental agreements: The case of biodiversity. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics,16(4), 525–541.
Greenaironline. (2018a). China refutes reports it has withdrawn from the voluntary phases of CORSIA although its concerns remain. Retrieved January 11, 2019, from http://www.greenaironline.com/news.php?viewStory=2502.
Greenaironline. (2018b). ICAO reaches key stage in CORSIA implementation with adoption of SARPs but challenges remain over sustainability criteria. Retrieved January 11, 2019, from http://www.greenaironline.com/news.php?viewStory=2499.
Harvey, F. (2018). Little-noticed treaty could help delay climate catastrophe. The Guardian, October 8, 2018. Retrieved October 17, 2018, from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/08/kigali-amendment-little-noticed-treaty-could-help-delay-climate-catastrophe.
Hayashi, D., & Michaelowa, A. (2013). Standardization of baseline and additionality determination under the CDM. Climate Policy,13(2), 191–209.
Hodgson, J. (2006). What are institutions? Journal of Economic Issues,40(1), 1–25.
ICAO. (2016a). Resolution A39-3: Consolidated statement of continuing ICAO policies and practices related to environmental protection—Global Market-based Measure (MBM) scheme. Retrieved November 16, 2018, from https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/CORSIA/Documents/Resolution_A39_3.pdf.
ICAO. (2016b). CORSIA states for Chapter 3 state pairs. Retrieved November 16, 2018, from https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/CORSIA/Pages/state-pairs.aspx#InplviewHasha0fc87a0-2c60-4ea6-b87a-3e3e28115065.
ICAO. (2017). Proposal for the First Edition of Annex 16, Volume IV, concerning Standards and Recommended Practices relating to the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (CORSIA), AN 1/17.14 – 17/129, Montreal: ICAO.
ICAO. (2018). Environmental protection. Annex 16. Carbon Offsetting an Reduction Scheme for International Civil Aviation (CORSIA). Retrieved November 16, 2018, from https://www.unitingaviation.com/publications/Annex-16-Vol-04/#page=1.
IGSD. (2018). Primer on HFCs, IGSD Working Paper: Institute for Governance and Sustainable Development. Retrieved October 12, 2018, from http://www.igsd.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/HFC-Primer-v11Jan18.pdf.
IPCC. (2018). Chapter 2: Mitigation pathways compatible with 1.5 °C in the context of sustainable development. In IPCC (Ed.), Global warming of 1.5 °C, an IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty. Retrieved October 17, 2018, from http://report.ipcc.ch/sr15/pdf/sr15_chapter2.pdf.
Kanie, N. (2014). Governance with multilateral environmental agreements: A healthy or ill-equipped fragmentation? In K. Conca & G. Dabelko (Eds.), Green planet blues: Critical perspectives on global environmental politics (5th ed., pp. 137–153). Abingdon: Routledge.
Keohane, R., & Victor, D. (2011). The regime complex for climate change. Perspectives on Politics,9(1), 7–23.
King, L. (1997). Institutional interplay. Research questions, report for the Institutional Dimensions of Global Change—International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change, Vermont: University of Vermont.
Low, P. (2016). Why the Montreal Protocol is the most successful climate agreement ever. Retrieved November 6, 2018, from https://www.scmp.com/business/article/2040177/why-montreal-protocol-most-successful-climate-agreement-ever.
Michaelowa, A., & Buen, J. (2012). The CDM gold rush. In A. Michaelowa (Ed.), Carbon markets or climate finance? (pp. 1–38). Abingdon: Routledge.
Michaelowa, A., & Butzengeiger, S. (2017). Ensuring additionality under Art. 6 of the Paris Agreement—Suggestions for modalities and procedures for crediting of mitigation under Art. 6.2 and 6.4 and public climate finance provision under Art. 6.8. Retrieved October 10, 2018, from https://www.icroa.org/resources/Documents/Art._6_Additionality_Perspectives_PRINT.pdf.
Montzka, S., Hall, D., & Elkins, J. (2009). Accelerated increases observed for hydrochlorofluorocarbons since 2004 in the global atmosphere. Geophysical Research Letters,36(3), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1029/2008GL036475.
Montzka, S., McFarland, M., Andersen, S., Miller, B., Fahey, D., Hall, D., et al. (2015). Recent trends in global emissions of hydrochlorofluorocarbons and hydrofluorocarbons: Reflecting on the 2007 adjustments to the Montreal Protocol. Journal of Physical Chemistry,119(19), 4439–4449.
MP Fund. (2018). Welcome to the multilateral fund for the implementation of the Montreal protocol. Retrieved December 14, 2018, from http://www.multilateralfund.org/default.aspx.
Munnings, C., Leard, B., & Bento, A. (2016). The net emissions impact of HFC-23 offset projects from the clean development mechanism. RFF Discussion Paper 16-01, Washington DC: Resources for the Future.
Oberthür, S. (2001). Linkages between the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols. Enhancing synergies between protecting the ozone layer and the global climate. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics,1(3), 357–377.
Oberthür, S. (2009). Interplay management: Enhancing environmental policy integration among international institutions. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics,9(4), 371–391.
Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. (2018). Open climate data. Kigali Amendment. Retrieved December 14, 2018, from https://kigali-amendment.openclimatedata.net/.
Raustiala, K., & Victor, D. (2004). The regime complex for plant genetic resources. International Organization,58(2), 277–309.
Schneider, L., Graichen, J., & Stricker, E. (2004). Submission to the CDM Executive Board on HFC-23 CDM projects. Berlin: Öko-Institut.
Schneider, L., & La Hoz Theuer, S. (2017). Using the Clean Development Mechanism for nationally determined contributions and international aviation. Project Report 2017-02. Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute.
Seidel, S., Ye, J., & Andersen, S. (2015). Technological change on the production sector under the Montreal Protocol. Arlington: C2ES.
Shishlov, I., & Bellassen, V. (2014). Moving from the CDM to “various approaches”. CDC Climat Climate Brief, 34. Retrieved November 13, 2018, from https://www.i4ce.org/download/climate-brief-n34-moving-from-the-cdm-to-various-approaches/.
Stokke, O. (2001). The interplay of international regimes: Putting effectiveness theory to work? FNI Report 10/2001. Lysaker: Fridtjof Nansen Institute.
UN. (1992). United Nations framework convention on climate change. Retrieved November 23, 2018, from https://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf.
UNEP. (n.d.a). Introduction to the Kigali Amendment. Paris: UN Environment Economic Division. Retrieved December 14, 2018, from http://www.unep.fr/ozonaction/information/mmcfiles/7876-e-Kigali_FS01_Introduction.pdf.
UNEP. (n.d.b). Legislative and policy options to control Hydrofluorocarbons. Paris: UN Environment Economic Division. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from http://www.unep.fr/ozonaction/information/mmcfiles/7922-e-LegislativeandPolicyOptionstoControlHFCs.pdf.
UNEP. (2016a). Decision XXVIII/2, Decision related to the amendment phasing down hydrofluorocarbons, Report of the twenty-eighth meeting to the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer. In UNEP/OzL.Pro.28/12. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from http://conf.montreal-protocol.org/meeting/mop/mop-28/final-report/English/MOP-28-12E.pdf.
UNEP. (2016b). Frequently asked questions relating to the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol. Retrieved November 13, 2018, from https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/faq_kigali_amendment_en.pdf.
UNEP. (2016c). Decision XXVIII/1, Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer, Annex I to the report of the twenty-eighth meeting to the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer. In UNEP/OzL.Pro.28/12. Retrieved October 15, 2018, from http://conf.montreal-protocol.org/meeting/mop/mop-28/final-report/English/MOP-28-12E.pdf.
UNEP. (2017). The emissions gap report. A UN Environment synthesis report. Nairobi: UNEP. Retrieved October 11, 2018, from https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/22070/EGR_2017.pdf.
UNEP. (2018). Compilation of decisions adopted by the parties at the thirtieth meeting of the parties to the Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer. Advanced copy. Retrieved November 26, 2018, from http://conf.montreal-protocol.org/meeting/mop/mop30/report/English/MOP30-compilation-of-decisions.pdf.
UNEP DTU Partnership. (2018). CDM pipeline overview. Version of October 1, 2018. Retrieved October 23, 2018, from http://www.cdmpipeline.org/.
UNEP Ozone Secretariat. (2006). Handbook for the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985). Nairobi: UNEP. Retrieved November 23, 2018, from https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/8731/VC_Handbook_2006.pdf?sequence=8&isAllowed=y.
UNEP Ozone Secretariat. (2016). Briefing note on legal aspects in the context of HFC management under the Montreal Protocol. Geneva: UNEP Ozone Secretariat. Retrieved October 12, 2018, from http://conf.montreal-protocol.org/meeting/oewg/oewg-37/presession/Background_documents/Briefing_note_on_legal_synergies.pdf.
UNEP Ozone Secretariat. (2018). Country data—All ratifications. . Retrieved November 23, 2018, from http://ozone.unep.org/countries/ratifications.
UNFCCC. (2015). Paris Agreement. Retrieved October 30, 2019, from https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdf.
UNFCCC. (2017). CDM methodology booklet. 9th edition. Retrieved October 17, 2018, from https://cdm.unfccc.int/methodologies/documentation/meth_booklet.pdf.
Van Welzen, A. (2018). CORSIA, EU ETS and the EU2030 aviation emissions target. Report 18-13, Utrecht: TAKS. Retrieved January 11, 2019, from https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2018_09_Study_CORSIA_EU_ETS_and_EU2030_aviation_emissions_target_Final.pdf.
Vaughan, A. (2017). Warming climate to nearly double demand for cooling appliances. The Guardian, April 17, 2018. Retrieved November 13, 2018, from https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/17/demand-for-cooling-predicted-to-outstrip-heating-as-earth-warms.
Wara, M. (2007). Is the global carbon market working? Nature,445, 595–596.
WMO, UNEP, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, European Commission. (2018). Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2018 Executive Summary, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project – Report No. 58. Retrieved January 11, 2019, from http://conf.montreal-protocol.org/meeting/mop/mop30/presession/Background-Documents/SAP-2018-Assessment-ES-October2018.pdf.
Young, O. (1996). Institutional linkages in international society. Polar perspectives. Global Governance,2(1), 1–23.
Zürn, M., & Faude, B. (2013). On fragmentation, differentiation, and coordination. Global Environmental Politics,13(3), 119–130.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the German Ministry of Education and Research for funding the project ‘Transformative Ambitionssteigerung – Der Beitrag effektiver Klimapolitikinstrumente (TABEK)’ (01LS1621A) in whose context this article has been written.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hoch, S., Michaelowa, A., Espelage, A. et al. Governing complexity: How can the interplay of multilateral environmental agreements be harnessed for effective international market-based climate policy instruments?. Int Environ Agreements 19, 595–613 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-019-09455-6
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-019-09455-6