Abstract
In Australia, student under-participation and disengagement in secondary mathematics classes are persistent problems. Academic help seeking is a unique self-regulated behaviour that is important for engagement in mathematics classes and yet many students avoid seeking help from teachers and peers as they progress through secondary school. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between students’ perceptions of the social climate of their classrooms and their avoidance of help seeking in secondary mathematics classes. Students’ perceptions of classroom social climate, along with perceptions of their own academic and social self-efficacy, self-theories of intelligence, and help-seeking goals and intentions, were assessed for a sample of 551 Australian students in 47 classes from eight secondary schools and two vocational institutes. The measurement model for social climate was reduced to four factors (Task Orientation, Teacher Support, Cooperation and Investigation) and a mediated structural equation model, informed by theory and previous empirical studies, was assessed using Mplus. Bootstrap confidence intervals were used to assess the direct and indirect effects of social climate on help-seeking avoidance. Findings indicated that Task Orientation and Cooperation had a negative effect on help-seeking avoidance, while Investigation had a positive effect. Teacher Support was not associated with help-seeking avoidance. Implications for practice are discussed.
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Appendix
Appendix
Help-seeking avoidance
Key: # = survey question number, n = number of responses, M = sample mean, Var = sample variance, λ = standardised factor loading, δ = standardised residual variance, deff = design effect, *—indicates item excluded from final measurement model.
(skewness [0.55, 0.77], kurtosis [− 0.67, 0.19], ICC(2) [0.55, 0.73], deff [2.00, 3.04]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
During this mathematics class | ||||||||
HSA01 | 22 | When I don’t understand my maths work, I often guess instead of asking someone for help | 550 | 2.99 | 5.36 | 0.66 | 0.57 | 0.09 |
HSA02 | 24 | I don’t ask questions during math, even if I don’t understand the lesson | 549 | 2.56 | 5.65 | 0.76 | 0.43 | 0.14 |
HSA03 | 27 | When I don’t understand my maths work, I often put down any answer rather than ask for help | 545 | 2.49 | 4.62 | 0.78 | 0.40 | 0.11 |
HSA04 | 30 | I usually don’t ask for help with my maths work, even if the work is too hard to do on my own | 545 | 2.73 | 5.24 | 0.79 | 0.38 | 0.13 |
HSA05 | 32 | If my maths work is too hard for me, I just don’t do it rather than ask for help | 535 | 2.23 | 4.56 | 0.66 | 0.57 | 0.19 |
Self-theory of intelligence (incremental)
(skewness [− 0.76, − 0.10], kurtosis [− 0.81, 0.42], ICC(2) [0.44, 0.62], deff [1.67, 2.33]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
STI01 | 11 | You have a certain amount of intelligence, and you can't really do much to change it (reversed) | 548 | 4.12 | 1.84 | 0.67 | 0.55 | 0.09 |
STI02 | 12 | Your intelligence is something about you that you can't change very much (reversed) | 549 | 4.13 | 1.69 | 0.70 | 0.51 | 0.09 |
STI03 | 13 | No matter who you are, you can significantly change your intelligence level | 546 | 4.39 | 1.48 | 0.72 | 0.48 | 0.12 |
STI04 | 14 | To be honest, you can't really change how intelligent you are (reversed) | 549 | 4.34 | 1.74 | 0.72 | 0.48 | 0.11 |
STI05 | 15 | You can always substantially change how intelligent you are | 546 | 4.23 | 1.41 | 0.71 | 0.49 | 0.10 |
STI06 | 16 | You can learn new things, but you can't really change your basic intelligence (reversed) | 549 | 3.75 | 1.64 | 0.60 | 0.64 | 0.06 |
STI07 | 17 | No matter how much intelligence you have, you can always change it quite a bit | 547 | 4.35 | 1.26 | 0.65 | 0.58 | 0.07 |
STI08 | 18 | You can change even your basic intelligence level considerably | 548 | 4.24 | 1.23 | 0.74 | 0.46 | 0.07 |
Academic self-efficacy
(skewness [− 0.96, − 0.24], kurtosis [− 0.98, 0.65], ICC(2) [0.60, 0.74], deff [2.22, 3.24]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
During this mathematics class | ||||||||
AES01 | 21 | I’m certain that I can master the skills taught in maths this year | 547 | 5.45 | 3.80 | 0.75 | 0.44 | 0.14 |
AES02 | 19 | I can do even the hardest work in this maths class if I try | 546 | 5.45 | 4.71 | 0.73 | 0.47 | 0.20 |
AES03 | 26 | If I have enough time, I can do a good job on all my work in this maths class | 550 | 6.14 | 3.21 | 0.67 | 0.55 | 0.11 |
AES04 | 28 | I can do almost all the work in this maths class if I don’t give up | 546 | 5.89 | 3.15 | 0.74 | 0.45 | 0.14 |
AES05 | 31 | Even if the maths is hard, I can learn it | 544 | 5.83 | 3.59 | 0.79 | 0.38 | 0.19 |
AES06 | 34 | I’m certain I can figure out how to do the most difficult maths work | 535 | 4.88 | 4.51 | 0.75 | 0.44 | 0.12 |
AES07 | 36 | No matter how hard I try, there is some maths work I’ll never understand. (reversed) | 534 | 4.37 | 6.16 | 0.48 | 0.77 | 0.21 |
Social self-efficacy with peers
(skewness [− 1.04, − 0.43], kurtosis [-0.12, 0.66], ICC(2) [0.46, 0.63], deff [1.73, 2.38]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
During this mathematics class | ||||||||
SEP01 | 20 | I find it easy to start a conversation with most students in my class | 550 | 5.73 | 4.72 | 0.70 | 0.51 | 0.08 |
SEP02* | 23 | I can explain my point of view to other students in my class | 548 | 4.96 | 3.97 | 0.57 | 0.68 | 0.07 |
SEP03 | 25 | I can get along with most of the students in my class | 548 | 5.91 | 3.99 | 0.71 | 0.50 | 0.07 |
SEP04 | 29 | I can work well with other students in my class | 546 | 5.84 | 3.39 | 0.76 | 0.42 | 0.13 |
Social self-efficacy with teacher*
(skewness [− 1.31, − 0.48], kurtosis [− 0.67, 0.92], ICC(2) [0.58, 0.76], deff [2.15, 3.32]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
During this mathematics class | ||||||||
SET01* | 38 | I can explain my point of view to my teacher | 533 | 5.42 | 3.46 | 0.74 | 0.45 | 0.14 |
SET02* | 40 | I find it hard to get along with my teacher. (reversed) | 532 | 6.31 | 4.37 | 0.39 | 0.85 | 0.18 |
SET03* | 42 | If my teacher gets annoyed with me I can usually work it out | 530 | 4.75 | 5.82 | 0.43 | 0.81 | 0.11 |
SET04* | 44 | I find it easy to just go and talk to my teacher | 532 | 5.52 | 4.89 | 0.54 | 0.71 | 0.22 |
Task orientation
(skewness [− 1.05, − 0.70], kurtosis [0.02, 0.67], ICC(2) [0.64, 0.75], deff [2.43, 3.23]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
In this mathematics class | ||||||||
CTO01 | 45 | Getting a certain amount of work done is important to me | 529 | 3.95 | 0.91 | 0.54 | 0.71 | 0.13 |
CTO04 | 53 | I am ready to start this class on time | 526 | 4.16 | 0.95 | 0.59 | 0.65 | 0.16 |
CTO05 | 62 | I know what I am trying to accomplish in this maths class | 520 | 4.00 | 0.90 | 0.65 | 0.58 | 0.17 |
CTO06 | 68 | I pay attention during this class | 517 | 4.05 | 0.74 | 0.69 | 0.52 | 0.17 |
CTO07 | 77 | I try to understand the work in this maths class | 516 | 4.25 | 0.64 | 0.75 | 0.45 | 0.21 |
Investigation
(skewness [− 0.26, − 0.12], kurtosis [− 0.26, 0.01], ICC(2) [0.50, 0.63], deff [1.82, 2.10]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
In this mathematics class | ||||||||
CIN01 | 46 | I carry out investigations to test my ideas | 529 | 3.18 | 1.01 | 0.66 | 0.57 | 0.10 |
CIN02* | 52 | I am asked to think about the evidence for statements | 525 | 3.42 | 0.83 | 0.41 | 0.83 | 0.08 |
CIN04* | 60 | I explain the meaning of statements, diagrams and graphs | 520 | 3.36 | 0.97 | 0.50 | 0.75 | 0.13 |
CIN07 | 66 | I find out answers to questions by doing investigations | 519 | 3.29 | 0.88 | 0.79 | 0.37 | 0.09 |
CIN08 | 76 | I solve problems by using information obtained from my own investigations | 515 | 3.57 | 0.79 | 0.64 | 0.60 | 0.10 |
Cooperation
(skewness [− 0.82, − 0.41], kurtosis [− 0.31, 0.66], ICC(2) [0.55, 0.71], deff [2.01, 2.88]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
In this mathematics class | ||||||||
CCO01 | 47 | I cooperate with other students when doing assignment work | 530 | 3.81 | 0.99 | 0.63 | 0.61 | 0.10 |
CCO02* | 55 | I share my books and resources with other students when doing assignments | 524 | 3.56 | 1.15 | 0.45 | 0.80 | 0.09 |
CCO03 | 64 | When I work in groups in this maths class, there is teamwork | 515 | 3.89 | 0.91 | 0.66 | 0.57 | 0.18 |
CCO05 | 67 | I learn from other students in this maths class | 520 | 3.58 | 0.98 | 0.60 | 0.64 | 0.13 |
CCO07 | 74 | I cooperate with other students on class activities | 513 | 3.92 | 0.84 | 0.80 | 0.36 | 0.14 |
Teacher support
(skewness [− 0.93, − 0.22], kurtosis [− 0.57, 0.24], ICC(2) [0.62, 0.72], deff [2.33, 2.93]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
In this mathematics class | ||||||||
CTS01* | 50 | The teacher takes a personal interest in me | 524 | 3.12 | 1.30 | 0.53 | 0.72 | 0.13 |
CTS02 | 57 | The teacher goes out of his/her way to help me | 524 | 3.49 | 1.25 | 0.79 | 0.38 | 0.18 |
CTS04 | 63 | The teacher helps me when I have trouble with the work | 520 | 4.10 | 0.94 | 0.69 | 0.52 | 0.17 |
CTS07 | 71 | The teacher moves about the class to talk with me | 515 | 3.50 | 1.31 | 0.72 | 0.48 | 0.15 |
CTS08 | 79 | The teacher's questions help me to understand | 514 | 3.81 | 0.88 | 0.63 | 0.61 | 0.12 |
Involvement*
(skewness [− 0.52, − 0.13], kurtosis [− 0.60, 0.29], ICC(2) [0.50, 0.68], deff [1.85, 2.63]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
In this mathematics class | ||||||||
CIT02* | 48 | I give my opinions during class discussions | 529 | 3.34 | 1.30 | 0.61 | 0.63 | 0.10 |
CIT03* | 56 | The teacher asks me questions | 524 | 3.38 | 0.90 | 0.50 | 0.75 | 0.15 |
CIT06* | 59 | I explain my ideas to other students | 522 | 3.55 | 0.97 | 0.75 | 0.44 | 0.13 |
CIT07* | 70 | Students discuss with me how to go about solving problems | 516 | 3.55 | 0.94 | 0.61 | 0.63 | 0.10 |
CIT08* | 73 | I am asked to explain how I solve problems | 514 | 3.42 | 0.94 | 0.55 | 0.69 | 0.08 |
Student cohesiveness*
(skewness [− 0.95, − 0.40], kurtosis [− 0.20, 0.54], ICC(2) [0.54, 0.63], deff [1.99, 2.37]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
In this mathematics class | ||||||||
CSC03* | 51 | I am friendly to members of this class | 527 | 4.25 | 0.73 | 0.67 | 0.55 | 0.12 |
CSC05* | 58 | I work well with other class members | 523 | 4.05 | 0.77 | 0.77 | 0.41 | 0.13 |
CSC06* | 65 | I help other class members who are having trouble with their work | 519 | 3.54 | 1.02 | 0.59 | 0.66 | 0.11 |
CSC07* | 72 | Students in this maths class like me | 513 | 3.84 | 0.90 | 0.71 | 0.50 | 0.09 |
CSC08* | 78 | In this maths class, I get help from other students | 515 | 3.41 | 1.01 | 0.44 | 0.81 | 0.10 |
Equity*
(skewness [− 0.94, − 0.53], kurtosis [− 0.27, 0.34], ICC(2) [0.58, 0.81], deff [2.15, 3.91]).
Item | # | Item description | n | M | Var | λ | δ | ICC(1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
In this mathematics class | ||||||||
CEQ01* | 49 | The teacher gives as much attention to my questions as to other students' questions | 528 | 4.02 | 1.10 | 0.61 | 0.62 | 0.13 |
CEQ02* | 54 | I get the same amount of help from the teacher as do other students | 526 | 3.79 | 1.20 | 0.68 | 0.54 | 0.11 |
CEQ03* | 61 | I have the same amount of say in this maths class as other students | 520 | 3.69 | 1.08 | 0.60 | 0.64 | 0.16 |
CEQ05* | 69 | I receive the same encouragement from the teacher as other students do | 517 | 3.91 | 0.97 | 0.81 | 0.35 | 0.15 |
CEQ06* | 75 | I get the same opportunity to contribute to class discussions as other students | 516 | 4.00 | 0.83 | 0.67 | 0.55 | 0.27 |
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Smalley, R.T., Hopkins, S. Social climate and help-seeking avoidance in secondary mathematics classes. Aust. Educ. Res. 47, 445–476 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-020-00383-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-020-00383-y