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Make it relevant! How prior instructions foster the integration of teacher knowledge

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Abstract

Preservice teachers face the challenge of integrating multiple types of knowledge, such as pedagogical–psychological knowledge and subject-specific pedagogical knowledge. We investigated whether prior instruction emphasizing the importance of knowledge integration (relevance instruction) supports preservice teachers in using both knowledge types simultaneously. Seventy-two preservice music teachers participated in this computer-based study. They worked on two separate lectures about learners’ beliefs. One lecture contained pedagogical–psychological knowledge; the other contained music-specific pedagogical knowledge. The preservice teachers received either a relevance instruction before starting a new lecture or a control instruction. We found that the relevance instruction increased the simultaneous use of the two knowledge types in scenario-based tasks. In these tasks, the preservice teachers needed to provide interpretations and decisions for excerpts describing various classroom situations. The relevance instruction increased the time that the preservice teachers spent on the lectures slightly; but it did not increase the perceived task difficulty or mental effort. Furthermore, the effect of the relevance instruction was not moderated by prior knowledge. We conclude that relevance instructions are a promising approach to fostering knowledge integration in teacher education.

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Fig. 1

Notes: CL = cognitive load

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Funding

This research was supported by grants from the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF; 01JA1518A). The funding source was not involved in study design, data collection, analysis, report writing, or submission for publication.

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Correspondence to Helene Zeeb.

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Appendices

Appendix 1: Relevance instruction and control instruction (translated from German)

Element

Relevance instruction

Control instruction

Preface

Before you get started, we would like to illustrate the background of the following learning material.

Before you get started, we would like to illustrate the background of the following learning material.

Example that illustrates the relevance of integrated knowledge

Imagine you are the music teacher of 7th-grade students and you are preparing the lesson for next week. You would like to introduce the topic “cadential chords” and explain the connections between chords on the first, fourth, and fifth note in a scale. During your preparation, you remember the last lecture in educational psychology, in which you learned about mental representations. Mental representations are cognitive representations of the learning content. You further realize that you had discussed mental representations in both your psychology and music education classes. In music, mental representations are called formal and figural representations and represent the internal imagination of music. Is there a connection between these different representations? Regarding your lesson, on the one hand, you would like to foster your students’ mental representations as you learned it in your psychology class. On the other hand, you know there are special kinds of mental representations in music. Thus, your students should not just be able to write cadences—they should also know how subdominant and dominant chords sound in the context of a cadence.

As this example illustrates, a one-sided view (solely psychological or solely music-specific) is not sufficient with regard to the complex requirements of being a teacher. You need to consider different point of views to prepare a good lesson.

Description of the different types of teacher knowledge

During your studies, you will learn about content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and pedagogical–psychological knowledge.

Content knowledge refers to knowledge of and about the subject matter, for example knowledge about harmonics, music theory, or music history.

Pedagogical content knowledge refers to knowledge about content and students, and about how to teach a specific topic. For example, it includes knowledge about mental representations that are specific for music.

Furthermore, teachers need pedagogical–psychological knowledge. For instance, this refers to knowledge about learning and memory processes or knowledge about strategies to deal with classroom disruptions.

During your studies, you will learn about content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, and pedagogical–psychological knowledge.

Content knowledge refers to knowledge of and about the subject matter, for example knowledge about harmonics, music theory, or music history.

Pedagogical content knowledge refers to knowledge about content and students, and about how to teach a specific topic. For example, it includes knowledge about mental representations that are specific for music.

Furthermore, teachers need pedagogical–psychological knowledge. For instance, this refers to knowledge about learning and memory processes or knowledge about strategies to deal with classroom disruptions.

Information about the relevance of integrated knowledge

At university, these knowledge types are taught in separate courses. Knowledge will thus most likely be stored in separate, unconnected memory compartments. This makes the integrated use of different knowledge types more difficult. However, in daily teaching practice, it is important to apply the different knowledge types at the same time in an integrated way. It is important to connect the different knowledge types already during your initial learning phase. It is your challenging responsibility as a teacher student to connect the contents from different courses on your own.

Instructions on the upcoming learning phase

In the following, you will work on two lectures that could be part of your studies. One lecture is about psychology; the other lecture is about music education. Please work through each lecture at your own pace. After the learning phase, you will answer some questions about the lectures.

Each lecture consists of 5 or 4 videos, respectively. You may take notes on the sheet of paper in front of you during the learning phase. Write down what you want to remember. Please put on the headphones before you continue to the next page.

In the following, you will work on two lectures that could be part of your studies. One lecture is about psychology; the other lecture is about music education. Please work through each lecture at your own pace. After the learning phase, you will answer some questions about the lectures.

Each lecture consists of 5 or 4 videos, respectively. You may take notes on the sheet of paper in front of you during the learning phase. Write down what you want to remember. Please put on the headphones before you continue to the next page.

Instruction to integrate knowledge during the learning phase

To develop a deeper understanding about the learning contents and to be able to apply these in your later teaching practice, it is important to connect different learning contents. Make sure to look for connections and links between the different lectures. Keep an eye out for similarities and connections during the learning process!

Reminder of the relevance instruction after the first lecture

Remember that it is important to connect the learning contents with each other to gain deeper understanding and be able to apply the learning contents. Make sure to identify similarities and connections during your learning process!

Appendix 2: Content of the lectures and possible answers for the scenario-based tasks

Knowledge type

Content of the lectures

Possible answers for the scenario-based tasks

Interpreting

Decision-making

PPK

Intuitive theories about intelligence; incremental versus entity theory

The student holds an entity theory about intelligence and believes that abilities cannot change through practice.

The student should develop an incremental theory and consider abilities as something changeable.

Influence of intuitive theories on motivation and learning

The student is demotivated and discouraged because he/she views new challenges as something scary.

By developing an incremental theory, the student will be more motivated and willing to invest effort into learning.

Strategies for changing students’ entity theories (e.g., promote a positive view on mistakes)

The students regard mistakes as a sign for low abilities, not as an opportunity for learning.

I would encourage the students to ask questions and make mistakes, so we can learn from them together.

PCK

Students’ musical self-concept and factors that influence the self-concept

Due to negative experiences in the past, the student has developed a low musical self-concept.

Positive experiences with music will help the student to develop a higher musical self-concept.

Relation between musical self-beliefs and general music-related beliefs (e.g., “musical talent is inborn”)

The student believes that musical talent is innate and that he/she is someone who is unmusical.

It would be important to discuss typical beliefs such as “musical talent is inborn” with the students.

Influence of teaching practices on students’ music-related beliefs

By creating competitive situations, the music teacher has reinforced the student’s low musical self-concept.

I would refrain from creating situations in which students are exposed and judged for their singing.

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Zeeb, H., Biwer, F., Brunner, G. et al. Make it relevant! How prior instructions foster the integration of teacher knowledge. Instr Sci 47, 711–739 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11251-019-09497-y

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