Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Latent Profile Analysis of Traditional and Cyber-Aggression and Victimization: Associations with Dark Triad Traits and Psychopathology Symptoms

  • Published:
Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research has shown that while traditional (e.g., physical and relational) and cyber aggression and victimization often co-occur, individuals may differ in terms of their experiences with aggression and victimization as well as social-psychological adjustment. The current study investigated whether there are distinct groups of college students who experience different forms of aggression and victimization using latent profile analysis (LPA), and whether these groups differ from one another in their maladaptive personality characteristics and psychopathology symptoms. Participants were 540 undergraduate students from a Midwestern university (53% female; 78.5% White; average age = 19.27 years). Four profiles were identified: Non-Involved (80.7%), Traditional Victim-Only (10.3%), Traditional Aggressor/Victim (4.8%), and Combined Aggressor/Victim (traditional aggression, cyber aggression and victimization; 4.1%). Maladaptive personality traits and psychopathology symptoms differed across the four groups. Both the traditional aggressor/victim group and the combined aggressor/victim group, compared to the non-involved and traditional victim-only group, reported higher levels of narcissism, psychopathy, and callous-unemotional (CU) traits. The traditional aggressor/victim group, compared to the combined aggressor/victim group, reported higher levels of narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and CU traits. The combined aggressor/victim group reported higher levels of psychopathology symptoms (i.e., emotion dysregulation, depression, anxiety, and stress) compared to the traditional aggressor/victim group. These findings enhance our understanding of the heterogeneity in experiences with aggression and victimization among college students, and highlight the importance of developing interventions that target their specific mental health needs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J., (2018). Media violence and the general aggression model. Journal of Social Issues, 74, 386-413. 101111/josi.12275.

  • Antoniadou, N., & Kokkinos, C. M. (2013). Cyber bullying and cyber victimization among children and adolescents: Frequency and risk factors. Preschool and Primary Education, 1, 138–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antoniadou, N., Kokkinos, C. M., & Fanti, K. A. (2019). Traditional and cyber bullying/victimization among adolescents: Examining their psychosocial profile through latent profile analysis. International Journal of Bullying Prevention, 1(2), 85–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Antoniadou, N., Kokkinos, C. M., & Markos, A. (2016). Possible common correlates between bullying and cyber-bullying among adolescents. Psicología Educativa, 22(1), 27–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett, C. P., & Gentile, D. A. (2012). Attacking others online: The formation of cyberbullying in late adolescence. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(2), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Becker, S. P., & Lienesch, J. A. (2018). Nighttime media use in adolescents with ADHD: Links to sleep problems and internalizing symptoms. Sleep Medicine, 51, 171–178.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Beeger, S., Fink, E., van der Meijden, S., Goossens, F., & Olthof, T. (2016). Bullying-related behaviour in a mainstream high school versus a high school for autism: Self-report and peer-report. Autism, 20(5), 562–571.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blossom, J. B., Fite, P. J., Frazer, A. L., Cooley, J. L., & Evans, S. C. (2016). Parental psychological control and aggression in youth: Moderating effect of emotion dysregulation. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 44, 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2016.02.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bouman, T., van der Meulen, M., Goossens, F. A., Olthof, T., Vermande, M. M., & Aleva, E. A. (2012). Peer and self-reports of victimization and bullying: Their differential association with internalizing problems and social adjustment. Journal of School Psychology, 50(6), 759–774.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw, C. P., Waasdorp, T. E., & O’Brennan, L. M. (2013). A latent class approach to examining forms of peer victimization. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105, 839–849.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Burton, K. A., Florell, D., & Wygant, D. B. (2013). The role of peer attachment and normative beliefs about aggression on traditional bullying and cyberbullying. Psychology in the Schools, 50(2), 103–115. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21663.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camodeca, M., & Goossens, F. A. (2005). Aggression, social cognitions, anger and sadness in bullies and victims. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46(2), 186–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00347.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79, 1185–1229. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01184.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, C. R., Williams, K. R., Guerra, N. G., Kim, T. E., & Sadek, S. (2010). Predictors of bullying and victimization in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic investigation. School Psychology Quarterly, 25(2), 65–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crick, N. R., & Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710–722. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131945.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coie, J. D., & Dodge, K. A. (1998). Aggression and antisocial behaviors. Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development, Vol. 3 (5th ed., pp. 779-862). New York: Wiley.

  • Crapanzano, A. M., Frick, P. J., Childs, K., & Terranova, A. M. (2011). Gender differences in the assessment, stability, and correlates to bullying roles in middle school children. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 29(5), 677–694. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.1000.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dahlen, E. R., Czar, K. A., Prather, E., & Dyess, C. (2013). Relational aggression and victimization in college students. Journal of College Student Development, 54(2), 140–154. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2013.0021.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, A. G., Sulkowski, M. L., Dempsey, J., & Storch, E. A. (2011). Has cyber technology produced a new group of peer aggressors? Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 14(5), 297–302. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeWall, C. N., Anderson, C. A., & Bushman, B. J. (2011). The general aggression model: Theoretical extensions to violence. Psychology of Violence, 1, 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023842.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ettekal, I., & Ladd, G. W. (2019). Development of aggressive-victims from childhood through adolescence: Associations with emotion dysregulation, withdrawn behaviors, moral disengagement, peer rejection, and friendships. Development and Psychopathology, 32, 271–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000063.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fanti, K. A., & Kimonis, E. R. (2013). Dimensions of juvenile psychopathy distinguish “bullies,” “bully-victims,” and “victims”. Psychology of Violence, 3(4), 396–409. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033951.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fanti, K. A., Frick, P. J., & Georgiou, S. (2009). Linking callous-unemotional traits to instrumental and non-instrumental forms of aggression. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31(4), 285.

  • Fanti, K. A., Demetriou, A. G., & Hawa, V. V. (2012). A longitudinal study of cyberbullying: Examining risk and protective factors. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9(2), 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2011.643169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., & Marsee, M. A. (2018). Psychopathy and developmental pathways to antisocial behavior in youth. In C. J. Patrick (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., & Morris, A. S. (2004). Temperament and developmental pathways to conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33(1), 54–68.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gini, G., Card, N. A., & Pozzoli, T. (2018). A meta-analysis of the differential relations of traditional and cyber-victimization with internalizing problems. Aggressive Behavior, 44(2), 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21742.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grigg, D. W. (2010). Cyber-aggression: Definition and concept of cyberbullying. Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools, 20(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1375/ajgc.20.2.143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gross, J. J., & Jazaieri, H. (2014). Emotion, emotion regulation, and psychopathology: An affective science perspective. Clinical Psychological Science, 2(4), 387–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614536164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haynie, D. L., Nansel, T., Eitel, P., Crump, A. D., Saylor, K., Yu, K., & Simons-Morton, B. (2001). Bullies, victims, and bully/victims: Distinct groups of at-risk youth. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 21(1), 29–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431601021001002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2015). Bullying beyond the schoolyard: Preventing and responding to cyberbullying (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holfeld, B., & Sukhawathanakul, P. (2017). Associations between internet attachment, cyber victimization, and internalizing symptoms among adolescents. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 20(2), 91–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holley, S. R., Ewing, S. T., Stiver, J. T., & Bloch, L. (2017). The relationship between emotion regulation, executive functioning, and aggressive behaviors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(11), 1692–1707. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515592619.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2014). Introducing the short dark triad (SD3) a brief measure of dark personality traits. Assessment, 21(1), 28–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191113514105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kerig, P. K., & Stellwagen, K. K. (2010). Roles of callous-unemotional traits, narcissism, and machiavellianism in childhood aggression. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 32(3), 343–352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-009-9168-7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kokkinos, C. M., Antoniadou, N., & Markos, A. (2014). Cyber-bullying: An investigation of the psychological profile of university student participants. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35, 204–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2014.04.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kokkinos, C. M., & Voulgaridou, I. (2017). Relational and cyber aggression among adolescents: Personality and emotion regulation as moderators. Computers in Human Behavior, 68, 528–537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.11.046.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014). Bullying in the digital age: A critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 1073–1137. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035618.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lanza, S. T., & Cooper, B. R. (2016). Latent class analysis for developmental research. Child Development Perspectives, 10, 59–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12163.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, K. S. L., & Marsee, M. A. (2013). Exploring narcissism, psychopathy, and machiavellianism in youth: Examination of associations with antisocial behavior and aggression. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22, 355–367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9586-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, K. S. L., Marsee, M. A., Kunimatsu, M. M., & Fassnacht, G. M. (2011). Examining associations between narcissism, behavior problems, and anxiety in non-referred adolescents. Child and Youth Care Forum, 40, 163–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Law, D. M., Shapka, J. D., Domene, J. F., & Gagné, M. H. (2012). Are cyberbullies really bullies? An investigation of reactive and proactive online aggression. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(2), 664–672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.11.013.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lorant, V., Nicaise, P., Soto, V. E., & d’Hoore, W. (2013). Alcohol drinking among college students: College responsibility for personal troubles. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 615. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-615.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the depression anxiety stress scales (DASS) with the Beck depression and anxiety inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marsee, M. A., Barry, C. T., Childs, K. K., Frick, P. J., Kimonis, E. R., Munoz, L. C., Aucoin, K. J., Fassnacht, G. M., Kumimatsu, M. M., & Lau, K. S. (2011). Assessing the forms and functions of aggression using self-report: Factor structure and invariance of the peer conflict scale in youths. Psychological Assessment, 3, 792–804. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsee, M. A., & Frick, P. J. (2007). Exploring the cognitive and emotional correlates to proactive and reactive aggression in a sample of detained girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(6), 969–981. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9147-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marsee, M. A., Frick, P. J., Barry, C. T., Kimonis, E. R., Centifanti, L. C. M., & Aucoin, K. J. (2014a). Profiles of the forms and functions of self-reported aggression in three adolescent samples. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 705–720. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414000339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marsee, M. A., Lau, K. S. L., & Lapré, G. E. (2014b). Parent and adolescent report of the forms and functions of aggression: Associations with delinquency, CU traits, and dysregulation. Child and Youth Care Forum, 43, 27–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-013-9223-0.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, N. A., Arnold, D. H., Rolon-Arroyo, B., & Griffith, S. F. (2015). The association between relational aggression and internalizing symptoms: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 34(2), 135–160. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2015.34.2.135.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mezzich, A. C., Tarter, R. E., Giancola, P. R., & Kirisci, L. (2001). The dysregulation inventory: A new scale to assess the risk for substance use disorder. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 10(4), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1300/J029v10n04_04.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mishna, F., Khoury-Kassabri, M., Gadalla, T., & Daciuk, J. (2012). Risk factors for involvement in cyber bullying: Victims, bullies and bully–victims. Children and Youth Services Review, 34(1), 63–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Modecki, K. L., Minchin, J., Harbaugh, A. G., Guerra, N. G., & Runions, K. C. (2014). Bullying prevalence across contexts: A meta-analysis measuring cyber and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 55(5), 602–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.06.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2017). Mplus user guide. Eighth edition. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén. Olweus D. 1991. Bully/victim problems among school-children: Basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. In D. Pepler & K. Rubin (Eds.), The development and treatment of childhood aggression (pp. 411–448). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Olweus, D. (1991). Bully/victim problems among schoolchildren: Basic facts and effects of a school based intervention program. The development and treatment of childhood aggression, 17(17), 411-448.

  • Pabian, S., Backer, D., Charlotte, J. S., & Vandebosch, H. (2015). Dark triad personality traits and adolescent cyber-aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 75, 41–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pedrelli P, Nyer M, Yeung A, Zulauf C, Wilens T. (2015). College Students: Mental Health Problems and Treatment Considerations. Acad Psychiatry. 39(5):503-511. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40596-014-0205-9

  • Reijntjes, A., Kamphuis, J. H., Prinzie, P., & Telch, M. J. (2010). Peer victimization and internalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34(4), 244–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.07.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberton, T., Daffern, M., & Bucks, R. S. (2012). Emotion regulation and aggression. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(1), 72–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2011.09.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, L. H., Beron, K. J., & Underwood, M. K. (2013). Assessing peer victimization across adolescence: Measurement invariance and developmental change. Psychological Assessment, 25(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028985.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salmivalli, C., & Nieminen, E. (2002). Proactive and reactive aggression among school bullies, victims, and bully-victims. Aggressive Behavior, 28(1), 30–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.90004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, D. (2000). Subtypes of victims and aggressors in children's peer groups. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(2), 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005174831561.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, S. J. (2016). Turning point for a turning point: Advancing emerging adulthood theory and research. Emerging Adulthood, 4, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696815624640.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sontag, L. M., Clemans, K. H., Graber, J. A., & Lyndon, S. T. (2011). Traditional and cyber aggressors and victims: A comparison of psychosocial characteristics. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(4), 392–404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-010-9575-9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, T. N., Helms, S. W., Kliewer, W., & Goodman, K. L. (2010). Associations between sadness and anger regulation coping, emotional expression, and physical and relational aggression among urban adolescents. Social Development, 19(1), 30–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2008.00531.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, R. (2019). College student peer aggression: A review with applications for colleges and universities. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 48, 218–229. https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.19.6.689.66342.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toblin, R. L., Schwartz, D., Gorman, A. H., & Abou-ezzeddine, T. (2005). Social-cognitive and behavioral attributes of aggressive victims of bullying. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26(3), 329–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2005.02.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaillancourt, T. (2013). Do human females use indirect aggression as an intrasexual competition strategy? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 368(1631), 20130080. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0080.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waasdorp, T. E., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2015). The overlap between cyberbullying and traditional bullying. Journal of Adolescent Health, 56(5), 483–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2014.12.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, B. A., Gordon, H., & Guerra, R. C. (2015). Callous–unemotional traits and empathy in proactive and reactive relational aggression in young women. Personality and Individual Differences, 75, 185–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.031.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Contributions

N.L.H. planned and conducted the analyses, interpreted the results, and wrote and collaborated in the editing of the manuscript. M.A.M designed and executed the study, assisted with writing, and collaborated in the editing of the manuscript. D.W. R consulted on data analyses and editing of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Monica A. Marsee.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

Nicole L. Hayes, Monica A. Marsee, and Daniel W. Russell declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Institutional Review Board at Iowa State University (#16–472) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Experiment Participants

All participants provided written informed consent. Experimental protocols in this study were approved by the university's institutional review board and all procedures met the guidelines of the institutional and/or national research committees.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in this study.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hayes, N.L., Marsee, M.A. & Russell, D.W. Latent Profile Analysis of Traditional and Cyber-Aggression and Victimization: Associations with Dark Triad Traits and Psychopathology Symptoms. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 43, 399–412 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-020-09835-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-020-09835-2

Keywords

Navigation