Abstract
The notion that postnatal adjustment requires women’s selflessness is widely accepted but understudied. This study explored the utility of a combined (selflessness × differentiation of self) model in explaining postnatal adjustment. One hundred and seventy-eight women completed the following questionnaires: Differentiation of Self, The Selflessness Scale, The Selfishness Subscale of the Omnibus Self-Test, Maternal Attitudes Questionnaire, and Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. The study findings partially support the suggested model. Both selflessness and differentiation were each found to have a significant direct effect on postnatal depression and mothers’ attitudes toward their baby. However, a quadratic effect of selflessness was found for maternal attitudes only, and interaction effect was not found. It is concluded that while these two variables may independently contribute to explaining postnatal adjustment, there is a need for an advanced multidimensional model to better understand their relationship in this context.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ardelt, M. (2008). Self-development through selflessness: The paradoxical process of growing wiser. In H. A. Wayment & J. Bauer (Eds.), Transcending self-interest: Psychological explorations of the quiet ego (pp. 221–233). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Bachar, E., Gur, E., Canetti, L., Berry, E., & Stein, D. (2010). Selflessness and perfectionism as predictors of pathological eating attitudes and disorders: A longitudinal study. European Eating Disorders Review, 18, 496–506. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.984.
Bachar, E., Latzer, Y., Canetti, L., Gur, E., Berry, E. M., & Bonne, O. (2002). Rejection of life in anorexic and bulimic patients. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 43–48. https://doi.org/10.1002/eat.10003.
Bachner-Melman, R., Zohar, A. H., Ebstein, R. P., & Bachar, E. (2007). The relationship between selflessness levels and the severity of anorexia nervosa symptomatology. European Eating Disorders Review, 15, 213–220. https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.740.
Barclay, L. M., Everitt, L., Rogan, F., Schmied, V., & Wyllie, A. (1997). Becoming a mother—An analysis of women’s experience of early motherhood. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 25, 719–728. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.1997.t01-1-1997025719.x.
Barr, J. (2008). Postpartum depression, delayed maternal adaptation, and mechanical infant caring: A phenomenological hermeneutic study. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45, 362–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2006.10.002.
Bartleet, B.-L. (2009). Musical mothers: Exploring the realities of conducting and mothering on the orchestral podium. In M. Porter & J. Kelso (Eds.), Theorising and representing maternal realities (pp. 119–136). Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Beauboeuf-Lafontant, T. (2007). "You have to show strength": An exploration of gender, race, and depression. Gender & Society, 21, 28–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243206294108.
Bowen, M. (1976). Theory in the practice of psychotherapy. Family Therapy: Theory and Practice, 4, 2–90.
Bowen, M. (1978). Family therapy in clinical practice. New York: Aronson.
Bowen, M. E. (1993). Family therapy in clinical practice. Lanham, MD: Jason Aronson Inc.
Choi, P., Henshaw, C., Baker, S., & Tree, J. (2005). Supermum, superwife, supereverything: Performing femininity in the transition to motherhood. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 23, 167–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646830500129487.
Cox, J. L., Holden, J. M., & Sagovsky, R. (1987). Detection of postnatal depression: Development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 782–786. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.150.6.782.
Cox, M. J., Paley, B., Burchinal, M., & Payne, C. C. (1999). Marital perceptions and interactions across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61, 611–625. https://doi.org/10.2307/353564.
Cummings, E. M., Keller, P. S., & Davies, P. T. (2005). Towards a family process model of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms: Exploring multiple relations with child and family functioning. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 479–489. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00368.x.
Dambrun, M., & Ricard, M. (2011). Self-centeredness and selflessness: A theory of self-based psychological functioning and its consequences for happiness. Review of General Psychology, 15, 138–157. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023059.
Darroch, F., & Hillsburg, H. (2017). Keeping pace: Mother versus athlete identity among elite long distance runners. Women's Studies International Forum, 62, 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2017.03.005.
de Hoon, S., Keizer, R., & Dykstra, P. (2017). The influence of motherhood on income: Do partner characteristics and parity matter? Community, Work & Family, 20, 211–225. https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2016.1227770.
Delmore-Ko, P., Pancer, S. M., Hunsberger, B., & Pratt, M. (2000). Becoming a parent: The relation between prenatal expectations and postnatal experience. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 625–640. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.14.4.625.
Deng, J., Li, T., Wang, J., & Zhang, R. (2019). Optimistically accepting suffering boosts happiness: Associations between buddhism patience, selflessness, and subjective authentic-durable happiness. Journal of Happiness Studies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00083-0.
Engler, J. (1998). Buddhist psychology: Contributions to Western psychological theory. In Conference on Inner Science with his Holiness The Dalai Lama., Oct, 1984, Amherst College; An earlier version of this essay was presented at the conference. North Point Press.
Finzi-Dottan, R., Goldblatt, H., & Cohen-Masica, O. (2014). The experience of motherhood for alienated mothers. Child & Family Social Work, 17, 316–325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2206.2011.00782.x.
Fitts, W. H. (1968). Tennessee self-concept scale. Nashville TN: Counselor Recording & Test.
Gameiro, S., Moura-Ramos, M., & Canavarro, M. C. (2009). Maternal adjustment to the birth of a child: Primiparity versus multiparity. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 27, 269–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/02646830802350898.
Glasser, S., & Barell, V. (1999). Depression scale for research in and identification of postpartum depression. HaRefua, 136, 764–768. (Hebrew).
Gorelik, G., & Shackelford, T. K. (2017). What is transcendence, how did it evolve, and is it beneficial? Religion, Brain & Behavior, 7(4), 361–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599X.2016.1249928.
Harwood, K., McLean, N., & Durkin, K. (2007). First-time mothers' expectations of parenthood: What happens when optimistic expectations are not matched by later experiences? Developmental Psychology, 43, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.1.
Hennekam, S. (2016). Identity transition during pregnancy: The importance of role models. Human Relations, 69, 1765–1790. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726716631402.
Ho, D. Y. F. (1995). Selfhood and identity in Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and Hinduism: Contrasts with the West. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 25, 115–139.
Homewood, E., Tweed, A., Cree, M., & Crossley, J. (2009). Becoming occluded: The transition to motherhood of women with postnatal depression. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 6, 313–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780880802473860.
Howell, E. A., Mora, P., & Leventhal, H. (2006). Correlates of early postpartum depressive symptoms. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 10, 149–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-005-0048-9.
Jensen, L. C., Huber, C., Cundrick, B., & Carlson, J. (1991). Development of a self-theory and measurement scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 57, 521–530. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5703_10.
Jewish Policy Center. (2013). Israel’s Demographic Miracle. Retrieved 22 November, 2016, from https://www.jewishpolicycenter.org/2013/02/28/israel-demographic-miracle.
Johnstone, B., Hanks, R., Bhushan, B., Cohen, D., Roseberry, J., & Yoon, D. P. (2017). Selflessness as a universal neuropsychological foundation of spiritual transcendence: Validation with Christian, Hindu, and Muslim traditions. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 20(2), 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674676.2017.1333090.
Joshanloo, M. (2014). Eastern conceptualizations of happiness: Fundamental differences with western views. Journal of Happiness Studies, 15, 475–493.
Kumar, R., Robson, K. M., & Smith, A. M. (1984). Development of a self-administrated questionnaire to measure maternal adjustment and maternal attitudes during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 28, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3999(84)90039-4.
Lemkau, J. P., & Landau, C. (1986). The "selfless syndrome": Assessment and treatment considerations. Psychotherapy, 23, 227–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0085602.
Lev-Wiesel, R., & Amir, M. (2000). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, psychological distress, personal resources, and quality of life in four groups of holocaust child survivors. Family Process, 39, 445–459. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2000.39405.x.
Malacrida, C., & Boulton, T. (2012). Women’s perceptions of childbirth “choices”: Competing discourses of motherhood, sexuality, and selflessness. Gender & Society, 26(5), 748–772. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243212452630.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224.
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (2010). Cultures and selves: A cycle of mutual constitution. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 420–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610375557.
Medina, A. M., Lederhos, C. L., & Lillis, T. A. (2009). Sleep disruption and decline in marital satisfaction across the transition to parenthood. Families, Systems, & Health, 27, 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015762.
Michalon, M. (2001). “Selflessness” in the service of the ego: contributions, limitations and dangers of Buddhist psychology for western psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 55, 202–218.
Murdock, N. L., & Gore, P. A., Jr. (2004). Stress, coping, and differentiation of self: A test of Bowen theory. Contemporary Family Therapy, 26, 319–335. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:COFT.0000037918.53929.18.
Nahhas, A., & Israelashvili, M. (2005). Self-esteem and coping style among divorce vs. married Arab children. Research Report. Tel Aviv University, Israel.
Newton, N. J., Herr, J. M., Pollack, J. I., & McAdams, D. P. (2014). Selfless or selfish? Generativity and narcissism as components of legacy. Journal of Adult Development, 21, 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-013-9179-1.
Ngai, F.-W., & Ngu, S.-F. (2013). Quality of life during the transition to parenthood in Hong Kong: A longitudinal study. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 34, 157–162. https://doi.org/10.3109/0167482X.2013.852534.
Nichols, M. P., & Schwartz, K. C. (2000). Family therapy: Concepts and methods (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Peleg, O., Halaby, E., & Whaby, E. (2006). The relationship of maternal separation anxiety and differentiation of self to children's separation anxiety and adjustment to kindergarten: A study in Druze families. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 973–995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.01.008.
Rinpoche, S. (1994). The Tibetan book of living and dying. New York, NY: Harper.
Shiah, Y.-J. (2016). From self to nonself: The nonself theory. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 124.
Skowron, E. A. (2000). The role of differentiation of self in marital adjustment. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 229–237. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.47.2.229.
Skowron, E. A. (2004). Differentiation of self, personal adjustment, problem solving, and ethnic group belonging among persons of color. Journal of Counseling and Development, 82, 447–456.
Skowron, E. A., & Friedlander, M. L. (1998). The differentiation of self inventory: Development and initial validation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 235–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.45.3.235.
Skowron, E. A., Wester, S. R., & Azen, R. (2004). Differentiation of self mediates college stress and adjustment. Journal of Counseling & Development, 82, 69–78.
Solmeyer, A. R., & Feinberg, M. E. (2011). Mother and father adjustment during early parenthood: The roles of infant temperament and co-parenting relationship quality. Infant Behavior and Development, 34, 504–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2011.07.006.
Travers, J. A. (1985–1986). Two faces of selflessness. Psychotherapy Patient, 2, 3–10. doi: 10.1300/J358v02n02_02
Vignoles, V. L., Owe, E., Becker, M., Smith, P. B., Easterbrook, M. J., Brown, R., et al. (2016). Beyond the 'East-West' dichotomy: Global variation in cultural models of selfhood. Journal of Experimental Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000175.
Westerhof, G. J., & Keyes, C. L. M. (2010). Mental illness and mental health: The two continua model across the lifespan. Journal of Adult Development, 17, 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-009-9082-y.
Wills, L., & Petrakis, M. (2019). The self in motherhood: A systematised review of relational self-construal and wellbeing in mothers. Advances in Mental Health, 17, 72–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/18387357.2018.1476066.
Winnicott, D. W. (1984[1956]). Primary maternal preoccupation. In: D. W. Winnicott (ed.) Through pediatrics to psychoanalysis: Collected papers (pp. 300–305). London: Karnac.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Reshef, P., Israelashvili, M. Between Selflessness and Differentiation in Postnatal Adjustment: Exploration of a Combined Model. J Adult Dev 28, 25–36 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-020-09355-z
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-020-09355-z