Repressor Element 1 Silencing Transcription Factor (REST) Governs Microglia-Like BV2 Cell Migration via Progranulin (PGRN)

Yu, Tongya; Lin, Yingying; Xu, Yuzhen; Dou, Yunxiao; Wang, Feihong; Quan, Hui; Zhao, Yanxin; Liu, Xueyuan

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8855822

Neural Plasticity

On this page

Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusions Data Availability Disclosure Conflicts of Interest Authors’ Contributions Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

Special Issue

Stress Induced Glial Changes in Neurological Disorders

View this Special Issue

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2020 | Article ID 8855822 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8855822

Repressor Element 1 Silencing Transcription Factor (REST) Governs Microglia-Like BV2 Cell Migration via Progranulin (PGRN)

Tongya Yu,¹Yingying Lin,¹Yuzhen Xu,¹Yunxiao Dou,¹Feihong Wang,¹Hui Quan,¹Yanxin Zhao,¹and Xueyuan Liu¹

Academic Editor: Fushun Wang

Received18 Aug 2020

Revised26 Oct 2020

Accepted13 Nov 2020

Published25 Nov 2020

Abstract

Microglia activation contributes to Alzheimer’s disease (AD) etiology, and microglia migration is a fundamental function during microglia activation. The repressor element-1 silencing transcription factor (REST), a powerful transcriptional factor, was found to play a neuroprotective role in AD. Despite its possible role in disease progression, little is known about whether REST participates in microglia migration. In this study, we aimed to explore the function of REST and its molecular basis during microglia migration under Aβ_1-42-treated pathological conditions. When treated by Aβ_1-42 REST was upregulated through JAK2/STAT3 signal pathway in BV2 cells. And transwell coculture system was used to evaluate cell migration function of microglia-like BV2. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting progranulin (PGRN) were delivered into BV2 cells, and results showed that PGRN functions to promote BV2 migration. REST expression was inhibited by sh-RNA, which induced BV2 cell migration obviously. On the contrary, REST was overexpressed by REST recombinant plasmid transfection, which repressed BV2 cell migration, indicating that REST may act as a repressor of cell migration. To more comprehensively examine the molecular basis, we analyzed the promoter sequence of PGRN and found that it has the potential binding site of REST. Moreover, knocking-down of REST can increase the expression of PGRN, which confirms the inhibiting effect of REST on PGRN expression. Further detection of double luciferase reporter gene also confirmed the inhibition of REST on the activity of PGRN promoter, indicating that REST may be an inhibitory transcription factor of PGRN which governs microglia-like BV2 cell migration. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that transcription factor REST may act as a repressor of microglia migration through PGRN.

1. Introduction

Alzheimer’s disease, the first leading cause of senile dementia, is characterized by amyloid-β deposition and tau hyperphosphorylation. Increasing evidence indicates that over activation of microglia plays an important role in the development of Alzheimer’s disease [1]. Microglia, the resident immune cell of the brain, are considered to be the first line defense and respond quickly to infectious, inflammatory, and pathophysiological stimuli [2, 3]. As the guardian of the central nervous system, microglia are constantly sampling their environment to maintain homeostasis and respond to immune challenges [4].

The migration of microglia is mediated by the interaction of chemokine and its receptor. Previously published data showed that progranulin (PGRN), a multifunctional growth factor expressed in various tissues, may act as a chemoattractant for microglia that over expression of progranulin in C57BL/6 mice lead to an increase of microglia around the injection site, and progranulin alone was sufficient to promote migration of primary mouse microglia in vitro [5].

The repressor element-1 silencing transcription factor (REST/NRSF) is a master transcriptional factor which played an important role in neurogenesis and neurodegenerative diseases. In the aging human brain, REST potently protects neurons from oxidative stress and amyloid β (Aβ) toxicity, while in AD brain, neuronal REST is lost from the nucleus resulting in the decline of cognitive function [6]. Abundance of study was focused on neuronal REST while function of REST in microglia remains unknown.

In this study, we reported that Aβ-induced REST upregulation in microglia-like BV2 cells and microglial REST represses migration. And we further show that REST regulated microglia migration through PGRN.

2. Methods

2.1. Preparation of Aggregated Aβ_1-42

It is generally believed that oligomer Aβ is more toxic than fibrillary Aβ. Therefore, in recent years, the research on the pathogenesis of AD is mainly based on oligomer Aβ stimulation. However, due to the poor stability of the oligomer Aβ which is easy to transform into fibrillary Aβ [1], the operation time window in vitro is relatively short of oligomer Aβ. So, in this study, fibrillary Aβ_1-42 was choosing to stimulate BV2 cells. And aggregated Aβ_1-42 was formed as previously described [7]. Synthetic human Aβ_1-42 peptides (ChinaPeptides, Shanghai, China) were dissolved in 0.4% DMSO-water to a concentration of 100 μM, then incubated at 37°C for 72 h to form fibrillary Aβ_1-42. Fibrillary Aβ_1-42 was frozen at -80°C for storage.

2.2. Cell Culture

BV-2 cells (Saiqi, Shanghai, China), PC12 cells (Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China), and 293T cells (Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China) were cultured in a humidified incubator with 5% CO₂ at 37°C. The culture medium was Dulbecco’s modified Eagle medium (Gibco, New York, America) supplemented with 5% low-endotoxin fetal bovine serum (Gibco, New York, America), 100 units/ml penicillin (Gibco, New York, America), and 100 μg/ml streptomycin (Gibco, New York, America).

2.3. Transwell Migration Assay

BV-2 cells ( [4]) were seeded in the inserts of transwells (Corning Costar Corp., Cambridge, MA, USA, 8.0 μm pore size). The transwell assay was performed as described. The insert was transferred into a well containing serum-free DMEM with or without Aβ_1-42 in the lower compartment and incubated for 24 h in 5% CO₂ at 37°C. Microglia that migrated to the lower surface were stained with Gentian Violet. Images were taken from four random fields with a florescent microscope at 4x magnification. The number of microglia on the lower surface of the insert was quantified. The experiments were repeated at least three times.

2.4. Plasmid Transfection

BV-2 cells were replanted 24 hours before transfection in 2 ml of fresh culture medium in a 6-well plastic plate. Plasmid were transfected when the cell density reached 70-80% by Lipofectamine 3000 (Thermo Fisher Scientific) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Before transfection, DMEM was removed and instead by Opti-MEM media. BV-2 cells were transfected with 2500 ng/well of the plasmid pCMV6XL4+sh-REST (Bio-link, Shanghai, China). Alternatively, the mock plasmid pcDNA 3.1 (Bio-link, Shanghai, China) was used as a control instead of the sh-REST plasmid. Six hours after transfection Opti-MEM media was removed, and BV-2 cells were culture for 48 h in DMEM before collecting for further Western blotting or qPCR.

2.5. Western Blotting

Before harvest, BV-2 cells were washed with cold PBS and then lysed with lysis buffer containing protease inhibitors for 30 min on ice. The samples were centrifuged at 12000 rpm, 4°C for 15 min. Then, the protein concentrations were determined by using a BCA protein assay kit (Beyotime Insititute of Biotechnology, Haimen, China). Proteins were electrophoresed using sodium dodecyl sulfate/polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE Bio-Rad, CA, USA) and transferred electrophoretically to PVDF membranes. Then, the membranes were blocked with 5% skim milk at room temperature (RT) for 1 h and were incubated with primary antibodies overnight at 4°C. Subsequently, membranes were washed and incubated with the appropriate HRP-conjugated secondary antibodies at room temperature for 1 h. Finally, membranes were washed and detected with enhanced chemiluminescence. Primary antibodies were as follows: anti-β-tubulin (1 : 2000; Sangon Biotech, China), anti-REST (1 : 1000; Abcam, USA) [8], anti-lambin 1 (1 : 2000, Proteintech, China), Jak2 (1 : 5000, Abcam, USA), p-JAK2 (1 : 1000, abcam, USA), STAT3 (1 : 1000, Abcam, USA), p-STAT3 (1 : 1000, Abcam, USA), PGRN (1 : 1000; R&D systems, USA), and lamin B1 (1 : 1000, Abcam, USA).

2.6. qPCR

Total RNA was isolated from the BV2 cells using Trizol Reagent (Invitrogen Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA, USA) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. 1 mg of RNA was reverse-transcribed to cDNA using PrimeScript™ RT reagent Kit (TaKaRa Bio Inc., Beijing, China). Quantitative RT-PCR analysis was performed using a SYBR Green PCR Kit (KAPA Biosystems, South Africa) with 1 μl of cDNA template in 20 μl reaction mixture. Results were analyzed using the comparative CT method. Data are expressed throughout the study as for the experimental gene of interest normalized to β-actin [9]. The gene specific primer pairs were as follows: mouse REST gene forward 5-GGCAGATGGCCGAATTGATG-3 and reverse 5-CTTTGAGGTCAGCCGACTCT-3; β-actin gene forward 5-ATCATGTTTGAGACCTTAAA-3 and reverse 5-CATCTCTTGCTCGAAGTCCA-3.

2.7. Dual Luciferase Assay Experiments

PGRN 3 UTR (2000 bp) containing REST target sequences was amplified from the BV-2 DNA with primers (forward: 5-CGGGGTACCCAGCCTGGTCTACAAAGTGAG-3; reverse: 5-GAAGATCTCTGGCGGTCAGCTCCAGG-3) and cloned into pGL3 Luciferase Reporter Vectors (Promega, Madison, USA). pRL-TK-SV40 control plasmid was used as internal control. 293T cells were replanted in a 24-well plate. When the cell fusion degree reached 70%, REST constructed plasmids; the GRN gene promoter plasmids and the control plasmid PRL TK were cotransfected (pGL3 basic recombinant plasmid : PRL TK control plasmid transfection amount = 10 : 1). Luciferase activity was detected with a Dual-Luciferase Reporter Assay System (Promega, Madison, USA) 48 h after transfection. Luciferase reporter activity in relative light units (RLU) was expressed as firefly-to-renilla ratio.

2.8. Statistical Analysis

For the analysis among more than two experimental conditions, one-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test was used, whereas for the analysis between two experimental groups, unpaired Student’s test was used. was considered statistically significant.

3. Results

3.1. The Promoting Effect of PGRN on Migration of BV-2 Cells

To explore the mechanism of microglia migration, in vitro transwell coculture system of BV-2 cells and PC12 was performed. In the transwell system, BV-2 cells were seeded in on the upper insert, and cell migration was analyzed by crystal violet staining. Results showed that DMEM cell culture medium in the bottom dish with different concentration of Aβ_1-42 did not cause a significant increase in the transmigration (Figures 1(a) and 1(b)). And PC12 cells cultivated in bottom dish treated with different concentration of Aβ_1-42 induced transmigration of BV2 cells significantly (Figures 1(a) and 1(c)). These results indicated that compared with Aβ_1-42 itself, impaired neurons are more likely to promote microglia migration.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Existing studies confirmed that PGRN may act as a chemoattractant to promote microglia migration [2]. In order to verify the effect of PGRN on the migration of microglia, small interfering RNA (siRNA) targeting PGRN were delivered into BV2 cells in the upper transwell dishes. Results were shown in Figures 1(d) and 1(e) that compared with the control group, silencing PGRN has repressed BV2 cell migration significantly, indicating the effect of PGRN on promoting BV-2 cell migration.

3.2. Aβ_1-42 Induced REST Expression through JAK2/STAT3 Pathway

Previous work established that REST is a master transcription factor of neurogenesis, which plays an important role in neuron. And Ilaria Prada’s work found that, in microglia, REST is highly expressed in the nucleus [10]. In this study, when BV-2 cells were treated with Aβ_1-42, REST mRNA and protein expression was upregulated with the increase of concentration of Aβ_1-42 (Figures 2(a) and 2(b)), which indicated that REST may involve in Aβ-induced activation of microglia.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Meanwhile, a significant induction of JAK2 and STAT3 phosphorylation were observed when BV-2 cells were treated with Aβ_1-42 although JAK2 and STAT3 total protein level did not change significantly (Figures 3(a)–3(d)), which was consistent with previous researches [11, 12]. In order to verify whether the increase of REST expression is induced by JAK2/STAT3 pathway, we treated BV-2 cells with Aβ_1-42, and meanwhile, different concentrations of JAK2/STAT3 pathway-specific inhibitor WP1066 was added, and then, REST protein level was analyzed by Western blotting. The results showed that compared with the control group, REST in BV-2 cells treated with Aβ_1-42 was upregulated which was consisting with previous data. And with the existing of WP1066 at 4 μM or 6 μM, Aβ_1-42-induced REST upregulation was inhibited (Figures 3(e) and 3(f)), which suggested that Aβ_1-42 might induce REST upregulation through JAK2/STAT3 pathway.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

3.3. REST Repressed BV2 Cell Migration

In order to study the effect of REST on the migration function of BV-2 cells, sh-RNA was used to knock down REST in BV-2 cells in a transwell migration assay. As shown in Figures 4(a) and 4(b) that REST was downregulated about 75% compared with the control group by treatment with sh-RNA. And knocking down of REST induced BV2 cell migration (Figure 4(d)). This result indicated that REST may act as a repressor of BV-2 cell migration. On the contrary, when REST was overexpressed by recombinant plasmid, BV-2 cell migration was repressed significantly (Figures 4(c) and 4(e)).

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

3.4. REST Repressed PGRN Expression

The previous experimental results confirmed the inhibition of REST on cell migration [13]. Since REST is a powerful transcription factor regulating various neural functions, we speculated REST might inhibit the migration of BV-2 cells by silencing the expression of PGRN. Searching from JASPAR database (http://jaspar.genereg.net/), putative REST binding sequences in genomic regions upstream of the PGRN gene coding sequences was identified (Figure 5(a)).

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

In order to verify the regulatory effect of REST on PGRN, Western blotting was performed to analyze PGRN expression when REST was knocked down by sh-RNA transfection and overexpressed by REST recombinant plasmid transfection. Results were shown in Figures 5(b) and 5(c) that knocking down of REST induced PGRN protein while overexpression of REST leads to downregulation of PGRN. And, meanwhile, PGRN in culture supernatant PGRN protein level was upregulated when REST was knocked down (Figure 5(b)). Ultimately, these observations suggest that REST may repress PGRN expression and secretion.

3.5. REST Repress PGRN Promoter Activity

To more comprehensively examine the molecular mechanism of PGRN transcription regulation by REST, dual-luciferase reporter gene assay was performed. The first base of the transcription start site (TSS) of PGRN was numbered +1, and 2000 BP (-1959~+41) upstream of TSS was selected as the promoter. Then, using BV-2 cell genomic DNA as template, we cloned the 5 noncoding region (-1959~+41, PGRN promoter) of PGRN gene, and then, we insert the PGRN promoter into pGL3. Basic plasmid. Results were shown in Figure 5(d) that the luciferase activity of PGRN promoter transfected cells was significantly higher than that of the control group, which means gene segment we had cloned from BV-2 cells contains the functional region of PGRN promoter.

To investigate whether PGRN transcriptional activity could be regulated by REST, REST recombinant plasmid and PGRN promoter plasmid were cotransfected into 293T cells, and then, changes of luciferase activity were examined. Results were shown in Figure 5(e) that compared with the control group, overexpression of REST reduced luciferase activity significantly, which means that REST may repress PGRN promoter transcriptional activity.

4. Discussion

Overactivation of microglia is closely related to the progression of Alzheimer’s disease, and microglial migration plays an important role in the activation of microglia. In Alzheimer’s disease, microglial migration towards soluble Aβ is an important process of phagocytosis [14]. Furthermore, microglia migrate to senile plaques constituting a barrier which prevents outward plaque expansion and limits inward accumulation of protofibrillar Aβ aggregates [15]. Besides, synaptic pruning function of microglia is also carried out in a migration-dependent manner [16, 17]. And when neuronal damage occurs, the migration function facilitates microglial phagocytosis of unwanted self-debris, which is critical to maintain homeostasis in the brain [18, 19]. In this study, transwell system was used to explore the role of REST on Aβ-induced microglial migration, and our data suggested that REST repressed microglial migration through PGRN.

Microglial migration is regulated by many mechanisms; some of which promote migration while others inhibit migration. Microglial migration is dependent on interaction between cell surface receptors and diverse external stimuli. The mechanisms related to the microglial migration have been studied, including P2Y receptor-mediated Ca(2+) signalling [20], calcium-dependent purinergic signalling [21], TRPM7 and KCa2.3/SK3 channels [22], and TREM2/β-catenin signaling pathway [23]. It has been reported that ATP released from injured neurons and nerve terminals can affect the motor ability of microglia. ATP/ADP can induce the chemotaxis of microglia through P2Y12 or P2Y13 receptors [24]. In this study, REST was observed as a suppressor of migration.

REST is a powerful transcription factor which binds to a conserved 23 bp DNA motif known as repressor element 1 (RE1) blocking transcription of downstream genes [25]. Previous work established that REST also participates in cell migration and plays diverse roles both in the physiological and pathological condition. Mandel et al. have reported that REST blocks radial migration during neurogenesis [13]. And in medulloblastoma (MB), REST is elevated promoting MB cell migration [26]. Beyond that, in glioblastoma (GBM) downregulation of REST by siRNA silencing could inhibit the migration of GBM cells [27]. Up to now, the role of REST in microglial migration in Alzheimer’s disease is unclear. In this study, a significant induction of JAK2 and STAT3 phosphorylation were observed when BV-2 cells were treated with Aβ_1-42, and with the existing of WP1066, Aβ_1-42-induced REST upregulation was inhibited, which suggested that Aβ_1-42 might induce the increase of REST expression through JAK2/STAT3 pathway. And knocking-down of REST weakened the migration of BV2 cells, which indicated that REST may have played a role of repressor during Aβ_1-42-induced BV-2 cell migration.

In addition to REST, progranulin (PGRN) also regulates microglial migration. PGRN is a secreted glycoprotein expressed in peripheral organs and the central nervous system, which was reported to implicate in embryonic development, tumorigenesis, wound defense, and inflammation, and PGRN was proved to promote cell migration as well. Previous work established that PGRN promotes migration of epithelial ovarian cancer cells [28], breast cancer cells [29], and H. pylori infected gastric cell migration [30]. In this study, PC12 cells stimulated by Aβ_1-42 were observed to promote microglial migration, which was consisting with previous study. And PGRN-specific siRNA was used to knockdown PGRN, which results in decreased BV2 cell migration. These data showed that PGRN can promote BV2 cell migration under the condition of treatment with Aβ_1-42. This observation was not surprising as previously published data showed that PGRN acts as a chemoattractant in the brain to recruit or activate microglia [2].

By analyzing the promoter sequence of PGRN, we found that it has the potential binding site of REST. Moreover, the knockdown of REST can increase the expression of PGRN, which confirms the inhibiting effect of REST on PGRN. Further detection of double luciferase reporter gene also confirmed the inhibition of REST on the activity of PGRN promoter, indicating that REST may be an inhibitory transcription factor of PGRN which governs microglia-like BV2 cell migration. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that PGRN can promote microglia migration and transcription factor REST may act as a repressor of microglia migration through PGRN.

5. Conclusions

Our findings raise the possibility that Aβ_1-42-induced REST expression has a repressing effect on BV-2 cell migration through PGRN.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Disclosure

Tongya Yu, Yingying Lin, and Yuzhen Xu are co-first authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Authors’ Contributions

Tongya Yu, Yingying Lin, and Yuzhen Xu contributed equally to this work.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by grants from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81771131), the Major Projects of Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality (17411950100), and Shanghai Municipal Key Clinical (shslczdzk06102).

References

T. Yu, H. Quan, Y. Xu et al., “Aβ-induced repressor element 1-silencing transcription factor (REST) gene delivery suppresses activation of microglia-like BV-2 cells,” Neural Plasticity, vol. 2020, Article ID 8888871, 8 pages, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Q. Wang, W. Yang, J. Zhang, Y. Zhao, and Y. Xu, “TREM2 overexpression attenuates cognitive deficits in experimental models of vascular dementia,” Neural Plasticity, vol. 2020, Article ID 8834275, 10 pages, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
X. Du, Y. Xu, S. Chen, and M. Fang, “Inhibited CSF1R alleviates ischemia injury via inhibition of microglia M1 polarization and NLRP3 pathway,” Neural Plasticity, vol. 2020, Article ID 8825954, 11 pages, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Q. Wang, Y. Xu, C. Qi, A. Liu, and Y. Zhao, “Association study of serum soluble TREM2 with vascular dementia in Chinese Han population,” The International Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 130, no. 7, pp. 708–712, 2020.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
F. Pickford, J. Marcus, L. M. Camargo et al., “Progranulin is a chemoattractant for microglia and stimulates their endocytic activity,” The American Journal of Pathology, vol. 178, no. 1, pp. 284–295, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Lu, L. Aron, J. Zullo et al., “REST and stress resistance in ageing and Alzheimer's disease,” Nature, vol. 507, no. 7493, pp. 448–454, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Roy, G. J. Steyer, M. Gargesha, M. E. Stone, and D. L. Wilson, “3D cryo-imaging: a very high-resolution view of the whole mouse,” Anatomical Record, vol. 292, no. 3, pp. 342–351, 2009.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Xu, Q. Wang, Z. Wu et al., “The effect of lithium chloride on the attenuation of cognitive impairment in experimental hypoglycemic rats,” Brain Research Bulletin, vol. 149, pp. 168–174, 2019.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Xu, Q. Wang, D. Li et al., “Protective effect of lithium chloride against hypoglycemia-induced apoptosis in neuronal PC12 cell,” Neuroscience, vol. 330, pp. 100–108, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
I. Prada, J. Marchaland, P. Podini et al., “REST/NRSF governs the expression of dense-core vesicle gliosecretion in astrocytes,” The Journal of Cell Biology, vol. 193, no. 3, pp. 537–549, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Eufemi, R. Cocchiola, D. Romaniello et al., “Acetylation and phosphorylation of STAT3 are involved in the responsiveness of microglia to beta amyloid,” Neurochemistry International, vol. 81, pp. 48–56, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. Xiong, C. Wang, H. Chen et al., “Aβ-induced microglial cell activation is inhibited by baicalin through the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway,” The International Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 124, no. 8, pp. 609–620, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
G. Mandel, C. G. Fiondella, M. V. Covey, D. D. Lu, J. J. Loturco, and N. Ballas, “Repressor element 1 silencing transcription factor (REST) controls radial migration and temporal neuronal specification during neocortical development,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 108, no. 40, pp. 16789–16794, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
Y. Fang, J. Wang, L. Yao et al., “The adhesion and migration of microglia to β-amyloid (Aβ) is decreased with aging and inhibited by Nogo/NgR pathway,” Journal of Neuroinflammation, vol. 15, no. 1, p. 210, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. Condello, P. Yuan, A. Schain, and J. Grutzendler, “Microglia constitute a barrier that prevents neurotoxic protofibrillar Aβ42 hotspots around plaques,” Nature Communications, vol. 6, no. 1, article 6176, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Kettenmann, F. Kirchhoff, and A. Verkhratsky, “Microglia: new roles for the synaptic stripper,” Neuron, vol. 77, no. 1, pp. 10–18, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
C. N. Parkhurst, G. Yang, I. Ninan et al., “Microglia promote learning-dependent synapse formation through brain-derived neurotrophic factor,” Cell, vol. 155, no. 7, pp. 1596–1609, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. F. Lloyd, C. L. Davies, and V. E. Miron, “Microglia: origins, homeostasis, and roles in myelin repair,” Current Opinion in Neurobiology, vol. 47, pp. 113–120, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Fricker, A. Vilalta, A. M. Tolkovsky, and G. C. Brown, “Caspase inhibitors protect neurons by enabling selective necroptosis of inflamed microglia,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, vol. 288, no. 13, pp. 9145–9152, 2013.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Langfelder, E. Okonji, D. Deca, W. C. Wei, and M. D. Glitsch, “Extracellular acidosis impairs P2Y receptor-mediated Ca(2+) signalling and migration of microglia,” Cell Calcium, vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 247–256, 2015.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
A. Sunkaria, S. Bhardwaj, A. Halder, A. Yadav, and R. Sandhir, “Migration and phagocytic ability of activated microglia during post-natal development is mediated by calcium-dependent purinergic signalling,” Molecular Neurobiology, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 944–954, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Siddiqui, S. Lively, R. Ferreira, R. Wong, and L. C. Schlichter, “Expression and contributions of TRPM7 and KCa2.3/SK3 channels to the increased migration and invasion of microglia in anti-inflammatory activation states,” PLoS One, vol. 9, no. 8, article e106087, 2014.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Zheng, L. Jia, C. C. Liu et al., “TREM2 promotes microglial survival by activating Wnt/β-catenin pathway,” The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, vol. 37, no. 7, pp. 1772–1784, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
P. Jiang, F. Xing, B. Guo et al., “Nucleotide transmitters ATP and ADP mediate intercellular calcium wave communication via P2Y12/13 receptors among BV-2 microglia,” PLoS One, vol. 12, no. 8, article e0183114, 2017.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
J. A. Chong, J. Tapia-Ramírez, S. Kim et al., “REST: a mammalian silencer protein that restricts sodium channel gene expression to neurons,” Cell, vol. 80, no. 6, pp. 949–957, 1995.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
K. Callegari, S. Maegawa, J. Bravo-Alegria, and V. Gopalakrishnan, “Pharmacological inhibition of LSD1 activity blocks REST-dependent medulloblastoma cell migration,” Cell Communication and Signaling, vol. 16, no. 1, p. 60, 2018.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
D. Zhang, Y. Li, R. Wang et al., “Inhibition of REST suppresses proliferation and migration in glioblastoma cells,” International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 17, no. 5, p. 664, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
T. Dong, D. Yang, R. Li et al., “PGRN promotes migration and invasion of epithelial ovarian cancer cells through an epithelial mesenchymal transition program and the activation of cancer associated fibroblasts,” Experimental and Molecular Pathology, vol. 100, no. 1, pp. 17–25, 2016.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
M. Swamydas, D. Nguyen, L. D. Allen, J. Eddy, and D. Dréau, “Progranulin stimulated by LPA promotes the migration of aggressive breast cancer cells,” Cell Communication & Adhesion, vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 119–130, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar
H. Wang, Y. Sun, S. Liu et al., “Upregulation of progranulin by Helicobacter pylori in human gastric epithelial cells via p38MAPK and MEK1/2 signaling pathway: role in epithelial cell proliferation and migration,” FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 82–92, 2011.
View at: Publisher Site | Google Scholar

Copyright

Copyright © 2020 Tongya Yu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

PDF Download Citation

Download other formats

Order printed copies

Views

742

Downloads

898

Citations

Neural Plasticity

Stress Induced Glial Changes in Neurological Disorders

Repressor Element 1 Silencing Transcription Factor (REST) Governs Microglia-Like BV2 Cell Migration via Progranulin (PGRN)

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Methods

2.1. Preparation of Aggregated Aβ1-42

2.2. Cell Culture

2.3. Transwell Migration Assay

2.4. Plasmid Transfection

2.5. Western Blotting

2.6. qPCR

2.7. Dual Luciferase Assay Experiments

2.8. Statistical Analysis

3. Results

3.1. The Promoting Effect of PGRN on Migration of BV-2 Cells

3.2. Aβ1-42 Induced REST Expression through JAK2/STAT3 Pathway

3.3. REST Repressed BV2 Cell Migration

3.4. REST Repressed PGRN Expression

3.5. REST Repress PGRN Promoter Activity

4. Discussion

5. Conclusions

Data Availability

Disclosure

Conflicts of Interest

Authors’ Contributions

Acknowledgments

References

Copyright

2.1. Preparation of Aggregated Aβ_1-42

3.2. Aβ_1-42 Induced REST Expression through JAK2/STAT3 Pathway