Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and heme, non-heme iron metabolism
Section snippets
The origin of mitochondria and reactive oxygen species from energy production
In the past 4.6 billion years of the history of the Earth, living organism have constantly evolved from bacteria as an ancestor. The highlight of the great evolution was the birth of mitochondria. Mitochondria arose approximately 1.5 billion years ago by transformation of ancestral bacteria into eukaryotes, followed by endosymbiotic transition [1]. The birth of mitochondria enabled aerobic metabolism, and the efficacy of energy production was dramatically improved. Aerobic metabolism is
Defense mechanism for oxidative stress and signaling via ROS
Mitochondria are the main producers of intracellular superoxide and also possess defense mechanisms to detoxify the reactivity (Fig. 1). Superoxide dismutase (SOD) is an enzyme that converts superoxide to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide [11]. SODs are of three types and have metal irons at the active center: Cu/ZnSOD (SOD1), MnSOD (SOD2), and extracellular SOD (ECSOD, SOD3) [11]. Cu/ZnSOD is located in the cytoplasm, MnSOD in mitochondria, and ECSOD outside the cells. Abnormality of these SODs
Mitochondrial ROS and cancer
ROS from mitochondria are associated with development of cancer, and elevated levels of ROS have been frequently detected in cancer cells [36]. Elevated levels of ROS in cancer activated the mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular-regulated kinase 1/2 (MAPK/Erk1/2) pathway and increased cellular proliferation [37,38]. We have clarified that invasion and migration of cancer cells are regulated by mitochondrial superoxide anion and that overexpression of MnSOD, which is localized
Mitochondrial ROS and iron metabolism
Iron is an essential nutrient for humans and is used for oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and cell proliferation [43,44]. Once iron is incorporated into the body, it circulates in the blood combined with transferrin and is conserved in cells [45]. Intracellular nonfunctioning iron is detoxified and stored as ferritin [46]. Iron deficiency results in anemia, immune depression, psychiatric disorders, and so on [[47], [48], [49]]. In addition, iron reacts with other chemicals, and excess amounts
Conclusion
Mitochondria are one of the most important and essential organelles that generate energy for biological activity, and ROS, especially superoxide anion, produced as a by-product of mitochondrial aerobic metabolism play a wide range of roles, such as regulation of disease, apoptosis, and iron metabolism. For iron metabolism in particular, mitochondria play pivotal roles in both non-heme and heme incorporation and exportation. In recent years, a transporter of iron in mitochondria has been
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