Late Triassic rift tectonics at the northernmost Andean margin (Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta)
Introduction
The Late Paleozoic – Early Mesozoic evolution of western Gondwana is characterized by several tectono-magmatic episodes, in which Laurentia, Gondwana, and the central American – Mexican terranes to the south of the Ouachita-Marathon suture (Oaxaquia, Acatlán, Chortis) interacted during Pangaea assembly and its subsequent break-up (Cawood and Buchan, 2007; Riel et al., 2018; Tazzo-Rangel et al., 2018). During the Permo-Triassic, the consolidation of an orogenic belt along western Gondwana was prompted during Pangaea Assembly. Defined, by the onset of a magmatic arc during the Permian that extended through the whole Panthalassian margin of Pangaea ( Centeno-García et al., 2005; Weber et al., 2007; Montes et al., 2010; Leal-Mejia, 2011; Leal-Mejía et al., 2018; Riel et al., 2018).
Likewise, the end of Early to early Late Triassic subduction of a proto-pacific plate (Panthalassian ocean; Riel et al., 2018) beneath South America and a concomitant back-arc extension driven by reduced convergence, produced the fragmentation of the north-western Gondwana margin (Spikings and Paul, 2019). The subsequent Triassic rift phase during Pangaea break-up involved anatectic melting of the lower crust and emplacement of peraluminous plutons (Fig. 1; Litherland et al., 1994; Noble et al., 1997; Vinasco et al., 2006; Villagómez et al., 2011; Riel et al., 2013, 2014; Cochrane et al., 2014; Spikings et al., 2015, 2016; Rodriguez et al., 2018), culminating with seafloor spreading and ophiolite generation during drifting. (Correa-Martinez, 2007; Restrepo, 2008). In consequence of protracted extension and rifting, the Central American and Mexican terranes (Oaxaquia, Acatlán, and Chortis) were separated from the NW Gondwana margin (Weber et al., 2007; Solari et al., 2011; Spikings et al., 2015).
Records of the Triassic break-up of western Pangaea are preserved as back-arc rift successions and alkaline volcanic rocks that have been documented up to Peru, Ecuador, southern Colombia (Senff, 1995; Rosas et al., 2007; Reitsma, 2012; Cochrane et al., 2014; Spikings et al., 2016; Spikings and Paul, 2019), and southern Mexico (Centeno-García et al., 2005; Barboza-Gudiño et al., 2010; Ortega-Flores et al., 2014; Maldonado et al., 2018). At the same time, oceanic crust produced by rifting during Pangaea break-up is locally preserved as the Upper Triassic Aburra ophiolitic complex in the Central Cordillera of the Northern Andes in Colombia (Correa-Martinez, 2007; Cochrane et al., 2014). Only a few exposures of sedimentary successions related of this rifting phase are preserved (e.g., Payandé Formation, Fig. 2; Kammer and Sánchez, 2006; Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006; Spikings et al., 2016; Spikings and Paul, 2019).
After the drifting of the Central American - Mexican terranes (Spikings and Paul, 2019), the reactivation of Andean-type subduction during the uppermost Late Triassic and Early Jurassic produced an eastward shift of the magmatic arc to a position to the east of the San Jeronimo fault (Fig. 1; Cochrane et al., 2014; Spikings et al., 2015). The following subduction-stage points to a widespread Jurassic volcanic arc along the NW Gondwana margin, which constitutes an extensive suite of batholiths (e.g., Mocoa batholith, Santander Igneous Suite, Ibague batholith; Fig. 1), minor stocks, and associated volcanic successions (Fig. 1; Leal-Mejia, 2011; Villagómez et al., 2011; Van Der Lelij et al., 2015; Bustamante et al., 2016; Bayona et al., 2020), interpreted as arc volcanism (Geyer, 1980; Maze, 1984; Bayona et al., 2020).
Further north, in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (SNSM) and Guajira massifs, the Merida Andes, and the Perija range (i.e., northern Colombia and Venezuela; Fig. 1), the mapping, analysis and geochemical/petrological characterization of either rifting-related sedimentary successions or oceanic crust derived ophiolites is until now extremely scarce. The Middle to lower Upper Triassic volcanoclastic rocks are mostly attributed to the Early Jurassic calc-alkaline arc, by stratigraphic correlations despite their lack of fossil content and geochronological constraints (Mojica et al., 1996; Rodríguez et al., 2019; Cediel, 2018). Furthermore, Upper Triassic syn-rift sedimentary deposits (Kammer and Sánchez, 2006; Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006; Reitsma, 2012) are interpreted as a product of the Jurassic volcanic arc along the NW Gondwana margin, regardless that the volcanic arc successions differ in depositional age by 15–20 Myr with the back-arc deposits (Mišković et al., 2009; Cochrane et al., 2014 ; Van Der Lelij et al., 2015; Spikings et al., 2015, 2016). Therefore, rather than grouping the Triassic back-arc rifting volcanism with the Jurassic volcanic arc (Mojica et al., 1996; Cediel et al., 2003; Cediel, 2018), it is recommendable to differentiate both tectonics settings.
In this contribution, we characterize Upper Triassic rift-related successions, and differentiate them from the Lower to Middle Jurassic deposits, which are found in the SNSM massif in the northernmost part of the Colombian Andes. Through a deep stratigraphic understanding of these sedimentary successions, we developed a tectonic framework for the Late Triassic rifting in NW Gondwana. The SNSM massif contains not only a well-preserved Upper Triassic (volcano-) sedimentary successions, but also Jurassic plutons and volcanic successions. It is an ideal location for studying the stratigraphic relationships and unconformities between the Triassic rift basin successions and the Early Jurassic volcanic arc (Fig. 2, Fig. 3; Tschanz et al., 1969, 1974; Colmenares et al., 2007). Consequently, we present here a comprehensive litho- and biostratigraphic, whole-rock geochemical, and detrital zircon geochronological study of the Upper Triassic Los Indios and Corual formations, to determine their stratigraphic relationships and lithological signatures for regional correlations.
Section snippets
Outline of the geology of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta massif
The SNSM massif defines a triangular block at the northern termination of the Andean mountain system (Cediel et al., 2003; Montes et al., 2010), bracketed by the dextral NNW-trending Santa Marta–Ariguani-Bucaramanga faults and the E-W-trending dextral Oca Fault (Tschanz et al., 1974). Physiographically, this isolated block is separated by the Lower Magdalena Valley and Cesar-Rancheria Valley basins, from the Central Cordillera and the Perija Range, respectively (Fig. 3). Tschanz et al. (1969,
Fieldwork and petrography
Field mapping and the measuring of stratigraphic sections (Fig. 4) were carried out in the western, southeastern, and northern foothills of the SNSM massif. Our mapping and observations permit improving previous geological maps of Gansser (1955), Tschanz et al. (1969, 1974), and Colmenares et al. (2007). Along the four studied stratigraphic sections of the Los Indios Formation, conglomerate clast counting was performed at 20 locations. Commonly, 60 clasts, with sizes varying from very coarse
Los Indios formation
The Los Indios Formation was mapped in the area north of the Ariguani River along the western foothills of the SNSM massif (Fig. 4a). This unit unconformably overlies the Los Mangos granulite and is in turn conformably overlain by the Corual Formation. These units are unconformably overlain by volcanoclastic felsic deposits and red-beds of the Guatapuri Formation (Fig. 4a).
Sedimentological interpretation and depositional model
Faunal content, lithology, and sedimentary structures from the Los Indios Formation are all indicative of a shallow-marine to transitional environment. We interpret deposits of the first member as coarse-grained delta deposits (ASO I and II, Table 1), as similar to many reported tripartite coarsening-upward deltaic successions (Mcpherson et al., 1987; Postma, 1990; Gobo et al., 2014). However, the aggradational stacking pattern in the first member (Fig. 5) might be a consequence of reduced
Conclusions
The depositional environment for the Los Indios Formation corresponds to a submerged half-graben, with a threefold facial architecture during the Carnian to Early Norian. Afterwards, a second rift stage involved in the emplacement of the Corual Formation between Middle Norian to Sinemurian, which required protracted crustal thinning, and led to massive production of mafic volcanism. Both phases are assembled within a multiphase rifting environment during the Late Triassic in NW Gondwana.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Cristhian Gómez: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing - original draft, Visualization, Funding acquisition. Andreas Kammer: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition. Matthias Bernet: Investigation, Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Resources. Alejandro Piraquive: Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing - review & editing. Albrecht von Quadt: Investigation, Resources.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
7. Acknowledgments
We thank numerous graduate students, who accompanied the authors in the field and helped to discover the geology of the Colombian Caribbean, especially the unexplored and fascinating SNSM massif. The authors acknowledge the useful comments provided by German Bayona and Javier Guerrero, who examined the MSc thesis of Cristhian Gomez and reviews by Mélanie Noury, Michelangelo Martini, and an anonymous reviewer, which improved the content of this manuscript. This study forms part of an MSc thesis
References (145)
- et al.
The geology and Mesozoic collisional history of the Cordillera Real, Ecuador
Tectonophysics
(1992) - et al.
Facies architecture of a Triassic rift-related silicic volcano-sedimentary succession in the tethyan realm, peonias subzone, vardar (axios) zone, northern Greece; regional implications
J. Volcanol. Geoth. Res.
(2010) - et al.
Paleomagnetic data uncovered from Mesozoic units of the Santa Marta Massif: constrain for paleogeographic and paleotectonic evolution of the NW corner of the South America plate
J. S. Am. Earth Sci.
(2010) - et al.
Mesozoic arc magmatism along the southern Peruvian margin during Gondwana breakup and dispersal
Lithos
(2012) - et al.
Enriched mantle source for the Central Atlantic magmatic province: new supporting evidence from southwestern Europe
Lithos
(2014) - et al.
Tectonomagmatic setting and provenance of the Santa Marta Schists, northern Colombia: insights on the growth and approach of Cretaceous Caribbean oceanic terranes to the South American continent
J. S. Am. Earth Sci.
(2010) - et al.
Permian to Triassic I to S-type magmatic switch in the northeast Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and adjacent regions, Colombian Caribbean: tectonic setting and implications within Pangea paleogeography
J. S. Am. Earth Sci.
(2010) - et al.
Linking accretionary orogenesis with supercontinent assembly
Earth Sci. Rev.
(2007) - et al.
Permo-Triassic anatexis, continental rifting and the disassembly of western Pangaea
Lithos
(2014) - et al.
Analytical errors in the determination of high field strength elements and their implications in tectonic interpretation studies
Chem. Geol.
(1992)
Depositional processes and stratigraphic architecture within a coarse-grained rift-margin turbidite system: the Wollaston Forland Group, east Greenland
Mar. Petrol. Geol.
Early Jurassic rift structures associated with the Soapaga and Boyacá faults of the Eastern Cordillera, Colombia: sedimentological inferences and regional implications
J. S. Am. Earth Sci.
Facies analysis and depositional environments of permian carbonates of the Venezuelan Andes: palaeogeographic implications for northern Gondwana
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol.
Subduction of Proterozoic to Late Triassic continental basement in the Guatemala suture zone: a petrological and geochronological study of high-pressure metagranitoids from the Chuacús complex
Lithos
Tectono-stratigraphic evolution of eastern Mexico during the break-up of Pangea: a review
Earth Sci. Rev.
The composition of the Earth
Chem. Geol.
Clockwise rotation of the Santa Marta massif and simultaneous paleogene to neogene deformation of the plato-san jorge and cesar-ranchería basins
J. S. Am. Earth Sci.
Determination of REE, Ba, Fe, Mg, Na, and K in carbonaceous and ordinary chondrites
Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta
Quantitative characterization of deltaic and subaqueous clinoforms
Earth Sci. Rev.
The geochemistry and geochronology of Early Jurassic igneous rocks from the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, NW Colombia, and tectono-magmatic implications
J. S. Am. Earth Sci.
A marine Late Jurassic syn-rift succession in the Lusitanian Basin, western Portugal—tectonic significance of stratigraphic signature
Sediment. Geol.
Geometrical control of subduction-related magmatism: the Mesozoic and Cenozoic plutonic history of Western Colombia
J. Geol. Soc.
Late Triassic stratigraphy and facies from northeastern Mexico: tectonic setting and provenance
Geosphere
Procesos orogénicos del Paleoceno para la cuenca de Ranchería (Guajira, Colombia) y áreas adyacentes definidos por análisis de procedencia
Geol. Colomb.
Jurassic evolution of the northwestern corner of Gondwana: present knowledge and future challenges in studying Colombian Jurassic rocks
American triassic estherids
J. Paleontol.
Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous plutonism in the Colombian Andes: a record of long-term arc maturity
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.
40Ar/39Ar ages from blueschists of the Jambaló region, Central Cordillera of Colombia: Implications on the styles of accretion in the Northern Andes
Geologica Acta
Early‐subduction‐related orogeny in the northern Andes: turonian to Eocene magmatic and provenance record in the Santa Marta massif and rancheria basin, northern Colombia
Terra. Nova
Tectonic assembly of the northern Andean block
Phanerozoic orogens of northwestern south America: cordilleran-type orogens. Taphrogenic tectonics. The maracaibo orogenic float. The chocó-panamá indenter
Review of upper Paleozoic and lower Mesozoic stratigraphy and depositional environments, central and west Mexico: constraints on terrane analysis and paleogeography
Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am.
Tracking changes in crustal thickness during orogenic evolution with Sr/Y: an example from the North American Cordillera
Geology
Crustal thickness control on Sr/Y signatures of recent arc magmas: an Earth scale perspective
Sci. Rep.
Geología de las planchas 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 20, 21, 25, 26, 27, 33 y 34. Proyecto: "Evolución geohistórica de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta", Contrato No: PS 025-06
Boletín Ingeominas
Geochronology of Proterozoic basement inliers in the Colombian Andes: tectonic history of remnants of a fragmented Grenville belt
Geological Society, London, Special Publications
Petrogenesis and Evolution of Aburra Ophiolite, Colombian Andes, Central Range
The Interpretation of Igneous Rocks
Cyclicity in Cordilleran orogenic systems
Nat. Geosci.
Interpreting provenance relations from detrital modes of sandstones
Igniting flare-up events in Cordilleran arcs
Geology
High-volume magmatic events in subduction systems
Elements
Geocronología (U/Pb y 40Ar/39Ar) y geoquímica de los intrusivos paleógenos de la Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta y sus relaciones con la tectónica del Caribe y el arco magmático circun-Caribeño
Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks
Estratigrafía del Precretácico en el flanco Occidental de la Serranía de Perijá
Geol. Colomb.
Ein Beitrag zur Geologie und Petrographie der Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Kolumbien, Sudamerika)
Schweizerische Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen
Tectono-sedimentary evolution of active extensional basins
Basin Res.
Das präkretazishe mesozoikum von Kolumbien
Geologishes Jahrbuch. Reihe B. Heft
Cited by (8)
Lithologic, geomorphic, and climatic controls on sand generation from volcanic rocks in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta massif (NE Colombia)
2022, Sedimentary GeologyCitation Excerpt :The NW-SE striking Sevilla lineament separates the Sevilla Belt from the Sierra Nevada Province. The Sierra Nevada Province is the largest province and consists of Proterozoic high-grade metamorphic rocks intruded by widespread felsic Jurassic plutonic rocks and Triassic to Jurassic volcanic rocks (Gómez et al., 2021; Piraquive et al., 2021) (Fig. 1C). Neogene sedimentary sequences unconformably overlie the basement in the southwest and northeast of the Sierra Nevada Province (Doolan, 1971; Tschanz et al., 1974; Rabe, 1977; Cardona et al., 2010a; Piraquive et al., 2018).
Folding of a weak boundary zone between an axial zone and a frontal belt, Chicamocha Valley, Eastern Cordillera of Colombia
2022, Andean Structural Styles: A Seismic AtlasMiddle-Late Triassic metamorphism of the Guajira Arch-basement: Insights from zircon U–Pb and Lu–Hf systematics
2021, Journal of South American Earth SciencesCitation Excerpt :In this scenario, back-arc extension and increased geothermal gradients due to ascending sub-lithospheric continental mantle may have given rise to a gneissic dome formation sensu Whitney et al. (2004; Fig. 18A). The processes involved in the formation of the Guajira Arch Triassic core complex (Fig. 18C) can be thus related to roll-back extension and rifting at the initial stages of western Pangaea break-up between 235 and 216 Ma (Cochrane et al., 2014a; Spikings and Paul, 2019), which is also documented at the Santa Marta Massif, where rift sequences of Carnian age attest for extension during this epoch (Gómez et al., 2021). Furthermore, extensional mechanisms driving anatexis by crustal extension at the Guajira Arch are evidenced by a top-to NW sinistral shear sense observed in the mylonitic units of the Uray Gneiss (Ug1, Ug3; Fig. 6), that also decrease in metamorphic grade towards the NW, in contrast to an anatectic core mostly granoblastic (Ug2, Fig. 6), indicating a ductile to brittle-ductile shear zone.
Middle Triassic to Jurassic convergence at the north-western margin of Gondwana: insights from the Central Cordillera of Colombia
2024, International Geology Review