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Kanchan arsenic filters in the lowlands of Nepal: mode of operation, arsenic removal, and future improvements

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Abstract

In the lowlands of Nepal (Terai), the WHO drinking water guideline concentration of 10 μg/L for arsenic (As) is frequently exceeded. Since their introduction in 2006, iron-assisted bio-sand filters (Kanchan filters) are widely used to treat well water in Nepal. The filters are constructed on the basis of As-removal with corroding zero-valent iron (ZVI), with water flowing through a filter bed of iron nails placed above a sand filter. According to several studies, the performance of Kanchan filters varies greatly and depends on the size of the iron nails, filter design, water composition, and operating conditions, leading to concerns about their actual efficiency. This study examined 38 Kanchan household filters for which insufficient As-removal was reported, to evaluate the reasons for limited removal efficiency and to define measures for improved performance. The measured arsenic removal ranged from 6.3% to 98.5%. The most relevant factors were the concentrations of As and Fe in the raw water, with the best removal efficiency observed for water with low As (123 µg/L) and high Fe (5.0 mg/L). Although the concentrations of other elements, pH, flow rates, and contact time with ZVI also played a role, the combined evidence indicated that the reactivity of the frequently drying nail beds between filtrations was insufficient for efficient As-removal. Optimized filters with added top layers of sand and raised water outlets with flow restrictions to keep nails permanently immersed and to increase contact times, should be able to achieve higher and more consistent arsenic removal efficiencies.

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Source: Ngai et al. (2005)

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Acknowledgements

Thanks are expressed to Candice Young-Rojanschi, Finn Macdonald, and Laura MacDonald from CAWST, Calgary, Canada; Hari Boudhatoki ENPHO, Kathmandu, Nepal; Gyan Prakash Yadav, Parasi, Nepal, and Som Rai, my loyal expedition and trekking guide in Nepal and responsible for all logistics over many years. We also thank Thomas Ruettimann, Eawag, for analysis of the samples by ICP-MS. This research was supported by various private foundations from Switzerland.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Bamugeobiochem, Horbenstrasse 4, 8356, Ettenhausen, Switzerland

    Barbara Mueller

  2. ENPHO, Environment and Public Health Organization, New Baneshwor, Kathmandu, Nepal

    Bipin Dangol

  3. CAWST, Center for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology, B12, 6020 – 2Street SE, Calgary, AB, T2H 2L8, Canada

    Tommy K. K. Ngai

  4. Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Ueberlandstrasse 133, CH-8600, Duebendorf, Switzerland

    Stephan J. Hug

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Mueller, B., Dangol, B., Ngai, T.K.K. et al. Kanchan arsenic filters in the lowlands of Nepal: mode of operation, arsenic removal, and future improvements. Environ Geochem Health 43, 375–389 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00718-9

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