1932

Abstract

Understanding the properties of dust attenuation curves in galaxies and the physical mechanisms that shape them are among the fundamental questions of extragalactic astrophysics, with great practical significance for deriving the physical properties of galaxies. Attenuation curves result from a combination of dust grain properties, dust content, and the spatial arrangement of dust and different populations of stars. In this review, we assess the state of the field, paying particular attention to extinction curves as the building blocks of attenuation laws. We introduce a quantitative framework to characterize extinction and attenuation curves, present a theoretical foundation for interpreting empirical results, overview an array of observational methods, and review observational results at low and high redshifts. Our main conclusions include the following:

  • ▪   Attenuation curves exhibit a wide range of UV-through-optical slopes, from curves with shallow (Milky Way–like) slopes to those exceeding the slope of the Small Magellanic Cloud extinction curve.
  • ▪   The slopes of the curves correlate strongly with the effective optical opacities, in the sense that galaxies with lower dust column density (lower visual attenuation) tend to have steeper slopes, whereas the galaxies with higher dust column density have shallower (grayer) slopes.
  • ▪   Galaxies exhibit a range of 2175-Å UV bump strengths, including no bump, but, on average, are suppressed compared with the average Milky Way extinction curve.
  • ▪   Theoretical studies indicate that both the correlation between the slope and the dust column as well as variations in bump strength may result from geometric and radiative transfer effects.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-032620-021933
2020-08-18
2024-03-29
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/astro/58/1/annurev-astro-032620-021933.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-032620-021933&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Álvarez-Márquez J, Burgarella D, Buat V, 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 630:A153
  2. Álvarez-Márquez J, Burgarella D, Heinis S 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 587:A122
  3. Aoyama S, Hou K-C, Hirashita H, Nagamine K, Shimizu I 2018. MNRAS 478:4905–21
  4. Arnouts S, Le Floc'h E, Chevallard J 2013. Astron. Astrophys. 558:A67
  5. Asano RS, Takeuchi TT, Hirashita H, Nozawa T 2013. MNRAS 432:637–52
  6. Barisic I, Faisst AL, Capak PL 2017. Ap. J. 845:41
  7. Battisti AJ, Calzetti D, Chary R-R 2016. Ap. J. 818:13
  8. Battisti AJ, Calzetti D, Chary R-R 2017a. Ap. J. 840:109
  9. Battisti AJ, Calzetti D, Chary R-R 2017b. Ap. J. 851:90
  10. Battisti AJ, da Cunha E, Shivaei I 2020. Ap. J. 888:108
  11. Berlind AA, Quillen AC, Pogge RW 1997. Astron. J. 114:107–14
  12. Berry M, Ivezić Ž, Sesar B 2012. Ap. J. 757:166
  13. Bianchi S, Clayton GC, Bohlin RC 1996. Ap. J. 471:203–10
  14. Bianchi S, Ferrara A, Davies JI 2000. MNRAS 311:601–10
  15. Blitz L, Shu FH 1980. Ap. J. 238:148–57
  16. Boissier S, Gil de Paz A, Boselli A 2007. Ap. J. Suppl. 173:524–37
  17. Boquien M, Buat V, Boselli A 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 539:A145
  18. Boquien M, Burgarella D, Roehlly Y 2019. Astron. Astrophys. 622:A103
  19. Boquien M, Calzetti D, Kennicutt R 2009. Ap. J. 706:553–70
  20. Bourne N, Dunlop JS, Merlin E 2017. MNRAS 467:1360–85
  21. Bouwens RJ, Aravena M, Decarli R 2016. Ap. J. 833:72
  22. Brammer GB, van Dokkum PG, Franx M 2012. Ap. J. Suppl. 200:13
  23. Buat V, Giovannoli E, Heinis S 2011. Astron. Astrophys. 533:A93
  24. Buat V, Iglesias-Páramo J, Seibert M 2005. Ap. J. Lett. 619:L51–54
  25. Buat V, Noll S, Burgarella D 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 545:A141
  26. Burgarella D, Buat V, Iglesias-Páramo J 2005. MNRAS 360:1413–25
  27. Calzetti D 1997. Astron. J. 113:162–84
  28. Calzetti D 2001. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 113:1449–85
  29. Calzetti D, Armus L, Bohlin RC 2000. Ap. J. 533:682–95
  30. Calzetti D, Kinney AL, Storchi-Bergmann T 1994. Ap. J. 429:582–601
  31. Capak PL, Carilli C, Jones G 2015. Nature 522:455–58
  32. Cardelli JA, Clayton GC, Mathis JS 1989. Ap. J. 345:245–56
  33. Casey CM, Narayanan D, Cooray A 2014a. Phys. Rep. 541:45–161
  34. Casey CM, Scoville NZ, Sanders DB 2014b. Ap. J. 796:95
  35. Charlot S, Fall SM 2000. Ap. J. 539:718–31
  36. Chary R, Elbaz D 2001. Ap. J. 556:562–81
  37. Chevallard J, Charlot S, Wandelt B 2013. MNRAS 432:2061–91
  38. Clayton GC, Gordon KD, Wolff MJ 2000. Ap. J. Suppl. 129:147–57
  39. Clayton GC, Martin PG 1985. Ap. J. 288:558–68
  40. Conroy C 2010. MNRAS 404:247–52
  41. Conroy C 2013. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 51:393–455
  42. Conroy C, Schiminovich D, Blanton MR 2010. Ap. J. 718:184–98
  43. Corre D, Buat V, Basa S 2018. Astron. Astrophys. 617:A141
  44. Cortese L, Boselli A, Buat V 2006. Ap. J. 637:242–54
  45. Cullen F, McLure RJ, Khochfar S 2017. MNRAS 470:3006–26
  46. da Cunha E, Charlot S, Elbaz D 2008. MNRAS 388:1595–617
  47. Daddi E, Alexander DM, Dickinson M 2007. Ap. J. 670:173–89
  48. Dalcanton JJ, Fouesneau M, Hogg DW 2015. Ap. J. 814:3
  49. Dale DA, Cohen SA, Johnson LC 2009. Ap. J. 703:517–56
  50. Dale DA, Helou G 2002. Ap. J. 576:159–68
  51. Davé R Anglés-Alcázar D, Narayanan D 2019. MNRAS 486:2827–49
  52. De Looze I, Fritz J, Baes M 2014. Astron. Astrophys. 571:A69
  53. De Marchi G, Panagia N, Sabbi E 2016. MNRAS 455:4373–87
  54. Decleir M, De Looze I, Boquien M 2019. MNRAS 486:743–67
  55. Desert F-X, Boulanger F, Puget JL 1990. Astron. Astrophys. 500:313–34
  56. Dong H, Li Z, Wang QD 2014. Ap. J. 785:136
  57. Dong H Li Z, Wang QD 2016. MNRAS 459:2262–73
  58. Draine BT 2003. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 41:241–89
  59. Draine BT 2004. The Cold Universe, Saas-Fee Advanced Course 32 D Pfenniger, Y Revas 213–304 Berlin: Springer-Verlag
  60. Draine BT 2009. Cosmic Dust—Near and Far T Henning, E Grün, J Steinacker, ASP Conf. Ser. 414:453–72 San Francisco: ASP
  61. Draine BT 2011. Physics of the Interstellar and Intergalactic Medium Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  62. Draine BT, Lee HM 1984. Ap. J. 285:89–108
  63. Draine BT, Li A 2007. Ap. J. 657:810–37
  64. Duley WW 1987. MNRAS 229:203–12
  65. Duley WW, Williams DA 1983. MNRAS 205:67P–70P
  66. Dwek E, Arendt RG, Fixsen DJ 1997. Ap. J. 475:565–79
  67. Elmegreen DM, Kaufman M, Elmegreen BG 2001. Astron. J. 121:182–97
  68. Erb DK, Steidel CC, Shapley AE 2006. Ap. J. 647:128–39
  69. Faber SM 1972. Astron. Astrophys. 20:361–74
  70. Faber SM, Wegner G, Burstein D 1989. Ap. J. Suppl. 69:763–808
  71. Faisst AL, Capak PL, Yan L 2017. Ap. J. 847:21
  72. Falco EE, Impey CD, Kochanek CS 1999. Ap. J. 523:617–32
  73. Fanelli MN, O'Connell RW, Thuan TX 1988. Ap. J. 334:665–87
  74. Ferrara A, Bianchi S, Cimatti A 1999. Ap. J. Suppl. 123:437–45
  75. Ferrara A, Hirashita H, Ouchi M 2017. MNRAS 471:5018–24
  76. Fischera J, Dopita M 2011. Astron. Astrophys. 533:A117
  77. Fitzpatrick EL 1985. Ap. J. 299:219–35
  78. Fitzpatrick EL 1999. Publ. Astron. Soc. Pac. 111:63–75
  79. Fitzpatrick EL, Massa D 1986. Ap. J. 307:286–94
  80. Fitzpatrick EL, Massa D 1988. Ap. J. 328:734–46
  81. Fitzpatrick EL, Massa D 1990. Ap. J. Suppl. 72:163–89
  82. Fitzpatrick EL, Massa D 2007. Ap. J. 663:320–41
  83. Fitzpatrick EL, Massa D 2009. Ap. J. 699:1209–22
  84. Fontanot F, Somerville RS 2011. MNRAS 416:2962–73
  85. Fontanot F, Somerville RS, Silva L 2009. MNRAS 392:553–69
  86. Forrest B, Tran K-VH, Tomczak AR 2016. Ap. J. Lett. 818:L26
  87. Förster Schreiber NM, Genzel R, Bouché N 2009. Ap. J. 706:1364–428
  88. Fudamoto Y, Oesch PA, Schinnerer E 2017. MNRAS 472:483–90
  89. Galliano F, Galametz M, Jones AP 2018. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 56:673–713
  90. Galliano F, Hony S, Bernard J-P 2011. Astron. Astrophys. 536:A88
  91. Gil de Paz A, Boissier S, Madore BF 2007. Ap. J. Suppl. 173:185–255
  92. Gillett FC, Jones TW, Merrill KM, Stein WA 1975. Astron. Astrophys. 45:77–81
  93. Gjergo E, Granato GL, Murante G 2018. MNRAS 479:2588–606
  94. Goldader JD, Meurer G, Heckman TM 2002. Ap. J. 568:651–78
  95. Gonzalez-Perez V, Lacey CG, Baugh CM, Frenk CS, Wilkins SM 2013. MNRAS 429:1609–25
  96. Gordon KD, Calzetti D, Witt AN 1997. Ap. J. 487:625–35
  97. Gordon KD, Clayton GC 1998. Ap. J. 500:816–24
  98. Gordon KD, Clayton GC, Misselt KA 2003. Ap. J. 594:279–93
  99. Granato GL, Lacey CG, Silva L 2000. Ap. J. 542:710–30
  100. Grasha K, Calzetti D, Andrews JE 2013. Ap. J. 773:174
  101. Greenberg JM 1986. Ap. Space Sci. 128:17–31
  102. Hagen LMZ, Siegel MH, Hoversten EA 2017. MNRAS 466:4540–57
  103. Heinis S, Buat V, Béthermin M 2013. MNRAS 429:1113–32
  104. Hirashita H 2015. MNRAS 447:2937–50
  105. Hirashita H, Aoyama S 2019. MNRAS 482:2555–72
  106. Holwerda BW, Keel WC, Williams B 2009. Astron. J. 137:3000–8
  107. Hou K-C, Aoyama S, Hirashita H, Nagamine K, Shimizu I 2019. MNRAS 485:1727–44
  108. Howell JH, Armus L, Mazzarella JM 2010. Ap. J. 715:572–88
  109. Hoyle F, Wickramasinghe NC 1969. Nature 223:459–62
  110. Inoue AK 2005. MNRAS 359:171–82
  111. Inoue AK, Buat V, Burgarella D 2006. MNRAS 370:380–98
  112. Johnson BD, Leja JL, Conroy C 2019. Astrophysics Source Code Library. ascl:1905.025
    [Google Scholar]
  113. Johnson BD, Schiminovich D, Seibert M 2007. Ap. J. Suppl. 173:392–403
  114. Jones AP, Duley WW, Williams DA 1990. Q. J. R. Astron. Soc. 31:567–82
  115. Jones AP, Köhler M, Ysard N, Bocchio M, Verstraete L 2017. Astron. Astrophys. 602:A46
  116. Jonsson P, Cox TJ, Primack JR 2006. Ap. J. 637:255–68
  117. Kauffmann G, Heckman TM, White SDM 2003. MNRAS 341:33–53
  118. Keel WC, Manning AM, Holwerda BW 2014. Astron. J. 147:44
  119. Kemper F, Vriend WJ, Tielens AGGM 2004. Ap. J. 609:826–37
  120. Kim S-H, Martin PG, Hendry PD 1994. Ap. J. 422:164–75
  121. Kinney AL, Bohlin RC, Calzetti D 1993. Ap. J. Suppl. 86:5–93
  122. Kinney AL, Calzetti D, Bica E 1994. Ap. J. 429:172–76
  123. Kong X. Charlot S, Brinchmann J, Fall SM 2004. MNRAS 349:769–78
  124. Koornneef J, Code AD 1981. Ap. J. 247:860–68
  125. Koprowski MP, Coppin KEK, Geach JE 2018. MNRAS 479:4355–66
  126. Koyama Y, Shimakawa R, Yamamura I 2019. Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 71:8
  127. Kriek M, Conroy C 2013. Ap. J. Lett. 775:L16
  128. Kuo T-M, Hirashita H 2012. MNRAS 424:L34–38
  129. Laor A, Draine BT 1993. Ap. J. 402:441–68
  130. Leitherer C, Schaerer D, Goldader JD 1999. Ap. J. Suppl. 123:3–40
  131. Leja J, Johnson BD, Conroy C, van Dokkum PG, Byler N 2017. Ap. J. 837:170
  132. Leja J, Johnson BD, Conroy C 2018. Ap. J. 854:62
  133. Lenz D, Hensley BS, Doré O 2017. Ap. J. 846:38
  134. Li A, Draine BT 2001. Ap. J. 554:778–802
  135. Li A, Greenberg JM 1997. Astron. Astrophys. 323:566–84
  136. Li Q, Narayanan D, Davé R 2019. MNRAS 490:1425–36
  137. Liang L, Feldmann R, Kereš D 2019. MNRAS 489:1397–422
  138. Lo Faro B, Buat V, Roehlly Y 2017. MNRAS 472:1372–91
  139. Ma J, Caucal P, Noterdaeme P 2015. MNRAS 454:1751–66
  140. Ma J, Ge J, Zhao Y 2017. MNRAS 472:2196–220
  141. Ma X, Hayward CC, Casey CM 2019. MNRAS 487:1844–64
  142. Madau P, Dickinson M 2014. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 52:415–86
  143. Malhotra S, Rhoads JE, Turner EL 1997. MNRAS 288:138–44
  144. Mancini M, Schneider R, Graziani L 2016. MNRAS 462:3130–45
  145. Mao Y-W, Kong X, Lin L 2014. Ap. J. 789:76
  146. Marrone DP, Spilker J 2018. Nature 553:51–54
  147. Massa D, Fitzpatrick EL 1986. Ap. J. Suppl. 60:305–21
  148. Massa D, Savage BD, Fitzpatrick EL 1983. Ap. J. 266:662–83
  149. Mathis JS 1990. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 28:37–70
  150. Mathis JS, Rumpl W, Nordsieck KH 1977. Ap. J. 217:425–33
  151. McKinnon R, Torrey P, Vogelsberger M 2016. MNRAS 457:3775–800
  152. McKinnon R, Vogelsberger M, Torrey P, Marinacci F, Kannan R 2018. MNRAS 478:2851–86
  153. McLure RJ, Dunlop JS, Cullen F 2018. MNRAS 476:3991–4006
  154. Meurer GR, Heckman TM, Calzetti D 1999. Ap. J. 521:64–80
  155. Meurer GR, Heckman TM, Leitherer C 1995. Astron. J. 110:2665–91
  156. Mieda E, Wright SA, Larkin JE 2016. Ap. J. 831:78
  157. Misselt KA, Clayton GC, Gordon KD 1999. Ap. J. 515:128–39
  158. Motta V, Mediavilla E, Muñoz JA 2002. Ap. J. 574:719–25
  159. Muñoz JA, Falco EE, Kochanek CS 2004. Ap. J. 605:614–19
  160. Nadeau D, Yee HKC, Forrest WJ 1991. Ap. J. 376:430–38
  161. Nandy K, Morgan DH, Willis AJ 1981. MNRAS 196:955–66
  162. Narayanan D, Conroy C, Davé R, Johnson BD, Popping G 2018a. Ap. J. 869:70
  163. Narayanan D, Davé R, Johnson BD 2018b. MNRAS 474:1718–36
  164. Narayanan D, Turk M, Feldmann R 2015. Nature 525:496–99
  165. Nataf DM, Gonzalez OA, Casagrande L 2016. MNRAS 456:2692–706
  166. Natale G, Popescu CC, Tuffs RJ 2015. MNRAS 449:243–67
  167. Noll S, Burgarella D, Giovannoli E 2009a. Astron. Astrophys. 507:1793–813
  168. Noll S, Pierini D, Cimatti A 2009b. Astron. Astrophys. 499:69–85
  169. Noll S, Pierini D, Pannella M 2007. Astron. Astrophys. 472:455–69
  170. Nozawa T, Asano RS, Hirashita H, Takeuchi TT 2015. MNRAS 447:L16–20
  171. O'Donnell JE 1994. Ap. J. 422:158–63
  172. Oteo I, Cepa J, Bongiovanni Á 2013. Astron. Astrophys. 554:L3
  173. Overzier RA, Heckman TM, Wang J 2011. Ap. J. Lett. 726:L7
  174. Panuzzo P, Granato GL, Buat V 2007. MNRAS 375:640–48
  175. Papovich C, Dickinson M, Ferguson HC 2001. Ap. J. 559:620–53
  176. Peek JEG, Graves GJ 2010. Ap. J. 719:415–24
  177. Peek JEG, Schiminovich D 2013. Ap. J. 771:68
  178. Penner K, Dickinson M, Pope A 2012. Ap. J. 759:28
  179. Pierini D, Gordon KD, Witt AN 2004. Ap. J. 617:1022–46
  180. Pope A, Montaña A, Battisti A 2017. Ap. J. 838:137
  181. Popescu CC, Tuffs RJ, Dopita MA 2011. Astron. Astrophys. 527:A109
  182. Popping G, Puglisi A, Norman CA 2017a. MNRAS 472:2315–33
  183. Popping G, Somerville RS, Galametz M 2017b. MNRAS 471:3152–85
  184. Prevot ML, Lequeux J, Maurice E 1984. Astron. Astrophys. 132:389–92
  185. Price SH, Kriek M, Brammer GB 2014. Ap. J. 788:86
  186. Puglisi A, Rodighiero G, Franceschini A 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 586:A83
  187. Reddy NA, Kriek M, Shapley AE 2015. Ap. J. 806:259
  188. Reddy NA, Oesch PA, Bouwens RJ 2018. Ap. J. 853:56
  189. Reddy NA, Pettini M, Steidel CC 2012. Ap. J. 754:25
  190. Reddy NA, Steidel CC 2004. Ap. J. Lett. 603:L13–16
  191. Riechers DA, Bradford CM, Clements DL 2013. Nature 496:329–33
  192. Rieke GH, Lebofsky MJ 1985. Ap. J. 288:618–21
  193. Rocha M, Jonsson P, Primack JR 2008. MNRAS 383:1281–91
  194. Rodighiero G, Daddi E, Baronchelli I 2011. Ap. J. Lett. 739:L40
  195. Roman-Duval J, Jenkins EB, Williams B 2019. Ap. J. 871:151
  196. Sabbi E, Anderson J, Lennon DJ 2013. Astron. J. 146:53
  197. Safarzadeh M, Hayward CC, Ferguson HC 2017. Ap. J. 840:15
  198. Salim S, Boquien M 2019. Ap. J. 872:23
  199. Salim S, Boquien M, Lee JC 2018. Ap. J. 859:11
  200. Salim S. Charlot S, Rich RM 2005. Ap. J. Lett. 619:L39–42
  201. Salim S, Lee JC, Janowiecki S 2016. Ap. J. Suppl. 227:2
  202. Salim S, Rich RM, Charlot S 2007. Ap. J. Suppl. 173:267–92
  203. Salmon B, Papovich C, Long J 2016. Ap. J. 827:20
  204. Savage BD, Mathis JS 1979. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 17:73–111
  205. Sawicki M, Yee HKC 1998. Astron. J. 115:1329–39
  206. Schady P, Dwelly T, Page MJ 2012. Astron. Astrophys. 537:A15
  207. Schlafly EF, Finkbeiner DP 2011. Ap. J. 737:103
  208. Schlafly EF, Finkbeiner DP, Schlegel DJ 2010. Ap. J. 725:1175–91
  209. Schlafly EF, Green G, Finkbeiner DP 2014. Ap. J. 789:15
  210. Schlafly EF, Meisner AM, Stutz AM 2016. Ap. J. 821:78
  211. Schlegel DJ, Finkbeiner DP, Davis M 1998. Ap. J. 500:525–53
  212. Scoville N, Faisst A, Capak P 2015. Ap. J. 800:108
  213. Seibert M, Martin DC, Heckman TM 2005. Ap. J. Lett. 619:L55–58
  214. Seon K-I, Draine BT 2016. Ap. J. 833:201
  215. Shapley AE 2011. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 49:525–80
  216. Shivaei I, Reddy NA, Steidel CC 2015. Ap. J. 804:149
  217. Siana B, Smail I, Swinbank AM 2009. Ap. J. 698:1273–81
  218. Siebenmorgen R, Kruegel E 1992. Astron. Astrophys. 259:614–26
  219. Siebenmorgen R, Voshchinnikov NV, Bagnulo S 2014. Astron. Astrophys. 561:A82
  220. Silva L, Granato GL, Bressan A 1998. Ap. J. 509:103–17
  221. Somerville RS, Davé R 2015. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 53:51–113
  222. Speagle JS, Steinhardt CL, Capak PL 2014. Ap. J. Suppl. 214:15
  223. Spinrad H, Taylor BJ 1971. Ap. J. Suppl. 22:445–84
  224. Stebbins J, Huffer CM, Whitford AE 1939. Ap. J. 90:209–29
  225. Stecher TP, Donn B 1965. Ap. J. 142:1681–82
  226. Steidel CC, Rudie GC, Strom AL 2014. Ap. J. 795:165
  227. Steinacker J, Baes M, Gordon KD 2013. Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 51:63–104
  228. Strandet ML, Weiss A, De Breuck C 2017. Ap. J. Lett. 842:L15
  229. Stratta G, Maiolino R, Fiore F 2007. Ap. J. Lett. 661:L9–12
  230. Takeuchi TT, Buat V, Heinis S 2010. Astron. Astrophys. 514:A4
  231. Takeuchi TT, Yuan F-T, Ikeyama A, Murata KL, Inoue AK 2012. Ap. J. 755:144
  232. Trayford JW, Camps P, Theuns T 2017. MNRAS 470:771–99
  233. Trayford JW, Lagos CDP, Robotham ASG 2020. MNRAS 491:3937–51
  234. Tress M, Mármol-Queraltó E, Ferreras I 2018. MNRAS 475:2363–74
  235. Tuffs RJ, Popescu CC, Völk HJ 2004. Astron. Astrophys. 419:821–35
  236. Valencic LA, Clayton GC, Gordon KD 2004. Ap. J. 616:912–24
  237. Viaene S, Baes M, Tamm A 2017a. Astron. Astrophys. 599:A64
  238. Viaene S, Sarzi M, Baes M 2017b. MNRAS 472:1286–99
  239. Vijayan AP, Clay SJ, Thomas PA 2019. MNRAS 489:4072–89
  240. Walcher J, Groves B, Budavári T, Dale D 2011. Ap. Space Sci. 331:1–52
  241. Wang S, Chen X 2019. Ap. J. 877:116
  242. Wang W, Kassin SA, Pacifici C 2018. Ap. J. 869:161
  243. Weingartner JC, Draine BT 2001. Ap. J. 548:296–309
  244. White RE, Keel WC 1992. Nature 359:129–31
  245. Wiklind T, Dickinson M, Ferguson HC 2008. Ap. J. 676:781–806
  246. Wild V, Charlot S, Brinchmann J 2011a. MNRAS 417:1760–86
  247. Wild V, Groves B, Heckman T 2011b. MNRAS 410:1593–610
  248. Wilkins SM, Gonzalez-Perez V, Lacey CG, Baugh CM 2012. MNRAS 424:1522–29
  249. Williams TG, Baes M, De Looze I 2019. MNRAS 487:2753–70
  250. Witt AN, Gordon KD 1996. Ap. J. 463:681–93
  251. Witt AN, Gordon KD 2000. Ap. J. 528:799–816
  252. Wuyts S, Förster Schreiber NM, Lutz D 2011. Ap. J. 738:106
  253. Yanchulova Merica-Jones P, Sandstrom KM, Johnson LC 2017. Ap. J. 847:102
  254. York DG, Khare P, Vanden Berk D 2006. MNRAS 367:945–78
  255. Ysard N, Köhler M, Jones A 2016. Astron. Astrophys. 588:A44
  256. Yuan HB, Liu XW, Xiang MS 2013. MNRAS 430:2188–99
  257. Zafar T, Watson D, Fynbo JPU 2011. Astron. Astrophys. 532:A143
  258. Zafar T, Watson D, Møller P 2018. MNRAS 479:1542–54
  259. Zeimann GR, Ciardullo R, Gronwall C 2015. Ap. J. 814:162
  260. Zubko V, Dwek E, Arendt RG 2004. Ap. J. Suppl. 152:211–49
  261. Zhukovska S, Dobbs C, Jenkins EB, Klessen RS 2016. Ap. J. 831:147
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-032620-021933
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-astro-032620-021933
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error