Performance of fly ash concrete with ferronickel slag fine aggregate against alkali-silica reaction and chloride diffusion
Introduction
Concrete is an artificial material composed of a binder, water, and aggregates and it is the second most used substance after water [1]. The demand for concrete has been significantly increased recently. Therefore, stockpiles of aggregate have been greatly enlarged to fulfill the requirements of concrete production. Natural sand has been the most used fine aggregate in conventional concrete. However, its availability has been declining due to its excessive utilization. Sand exploitation rate is now far more than its renewal rate [2,3]. Excessive mining of river sand places detrimental stress on river biodiversity, riverbed, river basins, salt-wedge intrusion, ecological communities, and food webs [[4], [5], [6], [7]]. The emerging sand scarcity has also intensified illicit sand trade, social conflicts, and political tensions between nations [[8], [9], [10]]. Sea sand has been considered but desalting related costs have to be included to eliminate any corrosion risk in reinforced structures due to its inherent chloride content [11]. Manufactured sand is one of the feasible options as natural sand substitution by using industrial by-products such as steel slag, copper slag, foundry slag, and blast furnace slag as natural sand substitution [[12], [13], [14], [15]].
Ferronickel slag is an industrial by-product of nickel production obtained by cooling with water or air [[16], [17], [18], [19], [20], [21], [22]]. In Australia and the Pacific region, over 2 Mt. (5.6 million cubic metre) of ferronickel slag (FNS) are annually produced by Société Le Nickel (SLN) in New Caledonia and the current stockpile available is over 25 Mt. Considering the volume of concrete produced in Australia of about 28.5 million cubic metres in 2016 [23] requiring about 10 million cubic metre of fine aggregate, FNS appears to be a promising candidate for natural fine aggregate replacement. It also should be noted that 150 Mt. of ferronickel slag is annually produced from the manufacturing of ferronickel alloy in the world, which represents the fourth largest amount of slag generated from smelting process after iron slag, steel slag and red mud [21,24]. In fact, the utilization rate of FNS is relatively low. 90% of FNS production is currently landfilled in open environments as “slag mountain” [21,22,25]. Ferronickel slag can present significantly different characteristics due to the divergence in laterite ore source, furnace temperature, and cooling procedure [26]. It was reported that air-cooled FNS is mainly composed of forsterite and enstatite crystalline whilst water-cooled FNS presents forsterite and high amorphous content resulting in higher expansion risk due to alkali-silica reaction (ASR) [27]. FNS from New Caledonia is water-cooled. However, in their accelerated mortar bar test (AMBT-ASTM C1567 [28]) prepared using FNS aggregate from New Caledonia [29], 30 wt% of cement replacement by fly ash effectively mitigated the ASR expansion of mortar bars. To facilitate the usage of FNS in the concrete industry, Saha and Sarker [16] reported that 50 wt% substitution rate of natural fine aggregate presented an optimum aggregate grading curve, outperforming reference OPC concrete in terms of mechanical properties. In addition, heavy metals leaching from concrete containing up to 100 wt% FNS fine sand were significantly lower than standard limits of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and United Kingdom Environment Agency [16]. Liu et al. [21] revealed that internal and external radiation indices of FNS were negligible (close to zero) and significantly smaller than the maximum value of 1.
Durability properties of concrete containing FNS as sand replacement are also another important factor for its industrial application. Saha and Sarker [30] showed the beneficial effect of the fly ash on FNS mortar subjected to wet-dry cycles at 23 °C and 110 °C respectively. Several previous studies indicated a reduction in the volume of the permeable void (VPV), sorptivity, chloride permeability, and negligible strength loss after accelerated weathering conditions [21,31]. Nguyen et al. [[17], [18], [19]] reported better ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV), electrical resistivity, carbonation resistance and reduction of early age cracking due to the secondary C-S-H formation at the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between FNS sand and paste. However, studies on durability properties of concrete with FNS sand are still limited, which can delay the adoption of FNS concrete in the construction industry.
This study aims to investigate the performance of concrete containing FNS as sand substitution against aggressive environments including ASR-favourable and chloride contaminated environments. 50% FNS replacement by mass of natural fine aggregate was considered to achieve suitable mechanical properties based on recommendations of the previous studies [16,17,32]. 25% fly ash by mass of binder was used to mitigate ASR risk and reduce the embodied carbon of concrete. Reliable test protocols such as the concrete prism test (CPT) for ASR and bulk diffusion test for chloride diffusion were conducted. The specimens extracted from concrete prisms after 637 days were analysed using scanning electron microscopy – energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). Accelerated experiments by applying external voltage including rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT) and chloride migration test (CMT) were also carried out to compare the chloride diffusion performance of FNS fly ash concrete with that of reference OPC concrete. Total and free chloride contents from bulk diffusion test and Friedel's salt contributing to chloride binding capacity of FNS concrete were determined by titration and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) respectively.
Section snippets
Materials and mix design
Three different kinds of aggregate were used in this study. 10 mm nominal size Basalt and Sydney sand were employed as natural coarse and fine aggregate, respectively. FNS as manufactured fine aggregate was obtained from Société Le Nickel (SLN) in New Caledonia. Physical characteristics of all aggregate including apparent relative density, water absorption, and fineness modulus are shown in Table 1. The chemical composition of FNS was analysed using X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF) and
ASR concrete prism test
CPT was conducted in the mixes of FNS_100GP and FNS_25FA with the addition of sodium hydroxide in the mixing water (Section 2). The variation of FNS_100GP and FNS_25FA concrete prisms length was measured on 3 duplicate samples for each mix design by utilizing the differences between initial comparator reading and subsequent comparator readings for up to 637 days according to ASTM C1293 and Australian Standard AS 1114.60.2 [37,38]. 24 ± 2 h after concrete casting, the initial comparator reading
Expansion of concrete prism due to ASR
Expansion due to ASR and weight variation of concrete specimens until 637 days are shown in Fig. 2. The expansion limitations after 1 year from ASTM C1293 and AS 1141.60.2 (0.04% and 0.03% respectively) are also integrated to Fig. 2(a) to identify the aggregate classification. Previous crystallographic study using the same FNS sand [29] reported that FNS used contains 44% of amorphous silica and cryptocrystalline silica structures. However, as shown in Fig. 2(a), the ASR expansions of FNS_100GP
Conclusions
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Regarding ASR risk, the expansion of concrete prisms containing ferronickel slag was below the limits recommended in ASTM C1293 and AS 1411.60.2 after 637 days of exposure. SEM images presented no significant damage for both GP cement and fly ash blended concretes. The non-reactive characteristic of FNS sand could be attributed to the secondary C-S-H formation instead of Portlandite to strengthen the ITZ between FNS sand and cement paste.
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Chloride diffusion accelerated tests with externally
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Quang Dieu Nguyen: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Visualization
Arnaud Castel: Methodology, Validation, Resources, Writing - Review & Editing, Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition
Taehwan Kim: Methodology, Validation, Resources, Writing - Review & Editing, Supervision
Mohammad S.H. Khan: Methodology, Investigation, Writing - Review & Editing, Supervision
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This research was funded by Société Le Nickel (SLN), New Caledonia. The authors gratefully acknowledge the contribution and continuous support from SLN.
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