Listeria monocytogens - Amended understanding of its pathogenesis with a complete picture of its membrane vesicles, quorum sensing, biofilm and invasion
Introduction
In recent times, problems caused by foodborne pathogens have become a crucial public health issue worldwide, developing a substantial level of morbidity and mortality [1]. As per a World Health Organization (WHO) report, foodborne illnesses are considered as an extremely complex community health-related issue in both technologically advanced and developing countries [2]. Listeria monocytogens is a Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium which causes listeriosis in human, an infrequent disease accompanying with high death rates through septicaemia, meningitis, miscarriage, and stillbirth [3,4]. It mainly pangs immune-compromised adults, aged people, pregnant women, and new-borns. The bacterium was first named as Listeria monocytogens by Murray et al., due to the distinguishing monocytosis observed in diseased rabbits and guinea pigs in the laboratory [5].
As a consequence of foodborne epidemics, concern in the bacterium kept growing across food manufacturers and government entities in the 1980s, with a consequent rise in the literature published. The biochemistry of the L. monocytogenes and further Listeria spp cellular framework was examined by Fiedler and he introduced a macromolecular model of the listerial cell wall association [6]. Several factors that influence the pathogenicity of L. monocytogenes have been proposed over the years such as, intracellular multiplication, iron substances, catalase, and superoxide dismutase, superficial constituents, and hemolysins [7].
The transmission of L. monocytogenes is facilitated through cell-to-cell penetration. The larger part of the virulence proteins is positioned on the cell surface or hidden to the extracellular locale [8]. L. monocytogenes comprises significantly specific secretion systems such as flagella export apparatus (FEA) systems and membrane vesicles to transport the proteins and to grasp definite targets [9].
The membrane surface protein actA plays a major role in the invasion of intracellular bacterium and mobilization of actin assembly inside host cells [10]. After the invasion of host cells, L. monocytogenes uses listriolysin O (LLO) and/or phospholipases (PlcA and PlcB) for the ingestion and to invade the human cell cytosol [11]. Subsequently, the L. monocytogenes develops successful biofilms and build its unique infection mechanisms which diverge from other enteropathogens [12]. The control of virulence in L. monocytogenes relies greatly on the transcription regulator called PrfA, which controls the expression of a complex array of genes, and thus it is known to be the master virulence regulator [13]. Despite this, numerous additional virulence regulators such as Hfq, MogR, DegU, VirR, GmaR, and SigB, substantially contributed to the virulence regulatory network of L. monocytogenes [14].
Section snippets
Biologically active outer membrane vesicles – a successive secreted virulence factor of Listeria monocytogenes
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been secreted in extracellular space components of the mammals and are identified in many microorganisms, suggesting that these structures are established in all domains of life [15]. Gram-negative EVs are called outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) since they secreted from the external membrane [16]. OMVs are dynamic in function, such as intercellular, cell-free interaction, environmental stress detoxification, rivalry killing, and move among bacteria or through the
Biofilm as a virulence factor in Listeria monocytogens
Bacterial cells are frequently established in multifaceted societies, named biofilms that deliver resources and defence to harsh environments (Fig. 2.) Listeria monocytogenes easily adopt a saprophytic way of life, and shift from commensalism to virulence stage leading to infections in some uncommon situations, especially in the persons with immunodeficiency [56].
Concerning the food chain, biofilm development enables to sustain the L. monocytogenes in the natural ecosystem and adds more to the
Invasion and intracellular survival of Listeria monocytogens
Listeria monocytogenes is an obligatory intracellular pathogen capable of deliberately invading and propagating in mammalian cells. In 1926, Murray and his colleagues published for the first time on this bacterial pathogen intracellular replication of L. monocytogenes within mononuclear cells [96]. In the 1960s, Mackaness's pioneering study, which established key players in cellular immunity contrary to bacterial intracellular pathogens, took benefit of intracellular L. monocytogenes as a
Conclusions
Collectively these review provide a clearer understanding of the role of membrane vesicles, with the mechanism of quorum sensing, biofilm, and invasion. The treatment of Listeria monocytogenes focal infections remains a major challenge in the healthcare community since they develop a large array of biofilm regulated virulence and quorum sensing factors that influence disease progression. Many promising recent advances in the research of L. monocytogenes as an intracellular pathogen have been
Declaration of competing interest
Authors do not have any conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
The authors strongly acknowledge the Vinayaka mission research foundation (deemed to be University) and Vinayaka mission medical college, Karaikal for the facilities provided.
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2021, Food BioscienceCitation Excerpt :For example, this structure may persist when the cleaning of food manufacturing plants is ineffective (Brooks & Flint, 2008). Quorum sensing, a cell to cell communication process, has a fundamental role in biofilm formation, by regulating its populational density and the metabolic activity within the biofilm, in order to attend to nutritional needs and resource availability (Kannan et al., 2020; Skandamis & Nychas, 2012). Blocking the microbial communication is an effective strategy to stop cooperative actions and reduce pressure on bacteria to develop resistance (Cosa et al., 2019), reducing their ability to thrive in food related environments.