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Electronic waste generation, regulation and metal recovery: a review

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Abstract

Waste will become the major resource in the future circular economy. In particular, E-waste is a major sector growing at an annual rate of about 2 million tonnes (Mt) with rising users of electrical and electronic items worldwide. This is a consequence of versatility and affordability of technological innovation, thus resulting in massive sales and e-waste increases. Most end-users lack knowledge on proper recycling or reuse, often disposing of e-waste as domestic waste. Such improper disposals are threatening life and ecosystems because e-waste is rich in toxic metals and other pollutants. Here we review e-waste generation, policies and recycling methods. In 2019, the world e-waste production reached 53.6 Mt, including 24.9 Mt in Asia, 13.1 Mt in USA, 12 Mt in Europe. In Asia, China (10.1 Mt), India (3.23 Mt), Japan (2.57 Mt) and Indonesia (1.62 Mt) are the largest producers contributing to about 70% of the total world e-waste generated. Only 17.4% (9.3 Mt) of the world e-waste was recycled by formal means, and the remaining 82.6% (44.3 Mt) was left untreated or processed informally. As a consequence, most countries have framed policies to provide regulatory guidelines to producers, end-users and recyclers. Yet the efficiency of these local policies are limited by the transfer of products across borders in a globalized world. Among formal recycling techniques, biohydrometallurgy appears most promising compared to pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy, because biohydrometallurgy overcomes limitations such as poor yield, high capital cost, toxic chemicals, release of toxic gases and secondary waste generation. Challenges include consumer’s contempt on e-waste disposal, the deficit of recycling firms and technology barriers.

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Abbreviations

3R:

Reduce, reuse and recycle

Ag:

Silver

Al:

Aluminium

As:

Arsenic

Au:

Gold

CAGR:

Compound annual growth rate

Cd:

Cadmium

Co:

Cobalt

CPCB:

Central pollution control board

Cr:

Chromium

Cu:

Copper

E-waste:

Electronic waste

H2SO4 :

Sulphuric acid

HARL:

Home appliance recycling law

HCl:

Hydrochloric acid

Hg:

Mercury

HNO3 :

Nitric acid

Mn:

Manganese

MOEF & CC:

Ministry of environment forest and climate change

MPPI:

Mobile phone partnership initiative

Mt:

Million tonnes

NEPSI:

National electronics product stewardship initiative

NGOs:

Non-Government Organizations

Ni:

Nickel

PACE:

Partnership for Action on Computing Equipment

Pb:

Lead

PBDD:

Poly-brominated-di-benzodioxins

PBDF:

Poly-brominated-di-benzofurans

PCDD:

Poly-chlorinated di-benzo-p-dioxins

PCDF:

Poly-chlorinated di-benzo-furans

Pd:

Palladium

Pt:

Platinum

RoHS:

Restriction of certain Hazardous Substances

SARL:

Small Appliance Recycling Law

Se:

Selenium

TSL:

Top Submerged Lance

WEEE:

Waste Electrical or Electronic Equipment

wPCBs:

Waste Printed Circuit Boards

Zn:

Zinc

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  1. Department of Industrial Biotechnology, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641013, India

    Rajarathinam Nithya & Arunachalam Thirunavukkarasu

  2. Department of Chemistry, Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, 641013, India

    Chandrasekaran Sivasankari

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Nithya, R., Sivasankari, C. & Thirunavukkarasu, A. Electronic waste generation, regulation and metal recovery: a review. Environ Chem Lett 19, 1347–1368 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01111-9

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