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Thermochemical conversion of plastic waste to fuels: a review

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Abstract

Plastics are common in our daily lifestyle, notably in the packaging of goods to reducing volume, enhancing transportation efficiency, keeping food fresh and preventing spoilage, manufacturing healthcare products, preserving drugs and insulating electrical components. Nonetheless, massive amounts of non-biodegradable plastic wastes are generated and end up in the environment, notably as microplastics. The worldwide industrial production of plastics has increased by nearly 80% since 2002. Based on the degree of recyclability, plastics are classified into seven major groups: polyethylene terephthalate, high-density polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, low-density polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene and miscellaneous plastics. Recycling technologies can reduce the accumulation of plastic wastes, yet they also pollute the environment, consume energy, labor and capital cost. Here we review waste-to-energy technologies such as pyrolysis, liquefaction and gasification for transforming plastics into clean fuels and chemicals. We focus on thermochemical conversion technologies for the valorization of waste plastics. This technology reduces the diversion of plastics to landfills and oceans, reduces carbon footprints, and has high conversion efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Depending on the conversion method, plastics can be selectively converted either to bio-oil, bio-crude oil, synthesis gas, hydrogen or aromatic char. We discuss the influence of process parameters such as temperature, heating rate, feedstock concentration, reaction time, reactor type and catalysts. Reaction mechanisms, efficiency, merits and demerits of biological and thermochemical plastic conversion processes are also discussed.

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Fig. 1

Data source: Kumar and Samadder (2017)

Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Data source: Statista (2018)

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Abbreviations

(C10H8O4)n :

Ethylene phthalate

(C3H6)n :

Polypropylene

(C8H8)n :

Polystyrene

°C/min:

Degree Celsius per minute

°C/s:

Degree Celsius per second

°C:

Degree Celsius

·H:

Hydrogen radical

·OH:

Hydroxyl radical

Al2O3 :

Aluminum oxide or alumina

ASTM:

American Society for Testing and Materials

Ba(OH)2 :

Barium hydroxide

C2H2 :

Acetylene

C2H4 :

Ethene or ethylene

C2H6 :

Ethane

C3H6 :

Propene

C3H8 :

Propane

C4H10 :

Butane

C4H8 :

Butene

Ca(OH)2 :

Calcium hydroxide

CeO2 :

Ceric oxide or ceria

CH4 :

Methane

Co/Al2O3 :

Cobalt on alumina

Co/CeO2 :

Cobalt on ceria

Co/CeO2–Al2O3 :

Cobalt on ceria–alumina

CO:

Carbon monoxide

CO2 :

Carbon dioxide

cP:

Centipoise

Cu/Al2O3 :

Copper on alumina

FDA:

United States Food and Drug Administration

Fe/Al2O3 :

Iron on alumina

Fe2O3/CeO2 :

Ferric oxide on ceria

FHYD/CA:

Ferrihydrite treated with citric acid

g/cm3 :

Gram per cubic centimeter

g/h:

Gram per hour

h:

Hour

H+ :

Cationic hydron

H2 :

Hydrogen

H2S:

Hydrogen sulfide

HDPE:

High-density polyethylene

HNZ:

Protonated natural zeolite

HZSM-5:

Protonated Zeolite Socony Mobil-5

IUPAC:

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

kcal/kg:

Kilocalorie per kilogram

kJ/kg:

Kilojoule per kilogram

kJ/mol:

Kilojoule per mole

KOH:

Potassium hydroxide

kW:

Kilowatt

LDPE:

Low-density polyethylene

m2/g:

Meter square per gram

Mg(OH)2 :

Magnesium hydroxide

min:

Minute

MJ/kg:

Megajoule per kilogram

mm:

Millimeter

mmol/g:

Millimoles per gram

MMT:

Million metric tons

MPa:

Megapascal

N2 :

Nitrogen

NAFTA:

North American Free Trade Agreement

Ni/Al2O3 :

Nickel on alumina

Ni/SiO2–Al2O3 :

Nickel on silica/alumina

nm:

Nanometer

NOx :

Nitrogen oxides

O2 :

Oxygen

OH− :

Anionic hydroxide

P c :

Critical pressure

PET or PETE:

Polyethylene terephthalate

pH:

Potential of hydrogen

PP:

Polypropylene

PS:

Polystyrene

PVC:

Polyvinyl chloride

RIC:

Resin Identification Code

Ru/Al2O3 :

Ruthenium on alumina

RuO2 :

Ruthenium(IV) oxide

s:

Second

SiO2/Al2O3 :

Silica–alumina

SOx :

Sulfur oxides

T c :

Critical temperature

wt%:

Weight percent

μm:

Micrometer

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), MITACS Canada and the City of London, Ontario for funding this research.

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  1. Institute for Chemicals and Fuels from Alternative Resources (ICFAR), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada

    Sonil Nanda & Franco Berruti

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Nanda, S., Berruti, F. Thermochemical conversion of plastic waste to fuels: a review. Environ Chem Lett 19, 123–148 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01094-7

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