Rhyolitic volcano dynamics in the Southern Andes: Contributions from 17 years of InSAR observations at Cordón Caulle volcano from 2003 to 2020
Introduction
Volcanic eruptions are one of the most spectacular geological processes observed on Earth. These events are produced by the ascent and extrusion of magma, molten rock composed of melt, crystals, and gases. The occurrence, duration, and style (either explosive or effusive) of the resulting eruption depend on a complex interplay of factors. These include the magma volume, ascent rate, composition, volatile content, and physicochemical transformations that the magma undergoes as it ascends and depressurizes from its storage area in a shallow reservoir through either a narrow conduit or a sill to the surface (Wilson et al., 1980; Tait et al., 1989; Jaupart and Tait, 1990; Jaupart, 2000; Edmonds and Wallace, 2017; Tait and Taisne, 2012; Dufek et al., 2012; Gonnermann and Manga, 2012; Gonnermann, 2015). The complexity of volcanic processes has been recently highlighted by a review article which stated that the first grand challenge in volcano science is to “forecast the onset, size, duration, and hazard of eruptions by integrating observations with quantitative models of magma dynamics” (National Academies of Sciences and Medicine, 2017). Fortunately, eruptions and/or the emplacement of magma in the upper crust are typically preceded by several signs of unrest including changes in ground deformation (e.g., Pinel et al., 2014), temperature (Reath et al., 2019), seismicity (e.g., Chouet and Matoza, 2013), and degassing (e.g., Carn et al., 2016) that can provide insights into their dynamics, and potentially forecast them (Sparks et al., 2012). However, there are still basic volcanological questions that remain unanswered. These include: 1. How is magma stored and transported in the crust? 2. What triggers eruptions? 3. What controls the duration and magnitude of eruptions? 4. What unrest signals are evidence of an imminent eruption? (National Academies of Sciences and Medicine, 2017; Wilson, 2017). Even in the best monitored volcanoes on Earth, eruption forecasting can be very challenging (Thelen et al., 2017; Peltier et al., 2018). Our understanding of the dynamics of these systems is still incomplete because we are inherently limited by the low resolving power of observations made from the Earth's surface (Bachmann and Huber, 2016) rather than in the actual reservoirs where magma is stored (Lowenstern et al., 2017).
Ground deformation data is a useful tool for volcano monitoring because the ascent of magma and the resulting eruption are usually coeval with displacement on the Earth's surface (Sparks et al., 2012). Thereby deformation allows us to potentially forecast and better understand volcanic processes. Volcano geodesy has traditionally relied on ground measurements including tiltmeters and continuous GPS but it has been revolutionized by Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR), providing new insights on a variety of volcanic processes like eruption dynamics (Dzurisin and Lu, 2007; Pinel et al., 2014; Lu and Dzurisin, 2014; Dumont et al., 2018; Dzurisin et al., 2019). The key advantage of InSAR is that it is the only geodetic method that can measure ground deformation over large areas ( 40 × 40 km2) with repeat periods of a few days and with small uncertainties (5 cm per interferogram). Compilations of satellite observations show a wide diversity of InSAR-derived deformation signals on volcanoes in Latin America (Reath et al., 2019) and elsewhere (e.g., Lu and Dzurisin, 2014), but the relation between deformation and eruption is not always clear (Biggs et al., 2014; Biggs and Pritchard, 2017; Delgado et al., 2017; Reath et al., 2019).
In this review article I present a summary of 17 years of InSAR observations at Cordón Caulle volcano (Fig. 1) in the Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) of the Chilean and Argentinian Andes (Stern, 2004) and the magmatic processes that can be unravelled with InSAR observations. Although InSAR data have contributed to key observations of volcanic processes in the SVZ, particularly during the VEI4-5 2008–2009 Chaitén (Wicks et al., 2011) and 2015 Calbuco (Nikkhoo et al., 2016; Delgado et al., 2017) eruptions and a sequence of unrest at Laguna del Maule volcano (Feigl et al., 2014; Le Mével et al., 2015; Novoa et al., 2019), in no other volcano in the SVZ than at Cordón Caulle it has shed light about a wide variety of volcanic processes (Pritchard and Simons, 2004; Fournier et al., 2010; Jay et al., 2014; Bignami et al., 2014; Delgado et al., 2016, 2018, 2019; Castro et al., 2016; Wendt et al., 2017; Euillades et al., 2017). These include a sequence of transient pre-eruptive pulses of magma injection, co-eruptive subsidence, lava flow extrusion and shallow laccolith intrusion, lava flow subsidence, and episodic post-eruptive magma injection that can lead to a potential new eruption (Fig. 2). At the time of writing (July 2020), no other subduction volcano in America except for Okmok in the Aleutians (Lu and Dzurisin, 2014) displays the wide variety of signals due to magmatic and superficial processes that can be observed with InSAR. The discovery of ground deformation at Cordón Caulle has been directly related to improvements in the SAR civilian platforms. Therefore, in this review I rely on multiplatform InSAR data and relate them to other geological observations (e.g., Castro et al., 2013, 2016; Bonadonna et al., 2015) only when they are relevant for the scope of this study.
I start this review with a summary of InSAR and volcano geodesy studies in the Southern Andes, highlighting the value of the method with respect to other geodetic techniques, particularly for the scope of this special issue on New advances on SAR Interferometry in South America. I then describe a complete cycle of pre-eruptive uplift, co-eruptive subsidence and post-eruptive uplift at Cordón Caulle imaged with InSAR. Then, I describe volcanological aspects where InSAR has made a leap forward in our understanding of rhyolitic dynamics. I finalize with a discussion on the challenges and opportunities for a better use of InSAR in the Southern Andes, including a qualitative comparison of different SAR data sets for the environmental conditions of Cordón Caulle. The time period of this study starts in March 2003 and ends in January 2020. It spans since the beginning of the routine phase of ENVISAT which was the first platform to systematically acquire data in the area to the current COSMO-SkyMED, TerraSAR-X, Sentinel-1, ALOS-2 and RADARSAT-2 acquiring several hundreds of SAR images per year. Therefore, significant changes in the InSAR technology have resulted in a much faster discovery and better understanding of magmatic processes than before.
Section snippets
Volcano geodesy in the Southern Andes
The Southern Volcanic Zone (SVZ) (Fig. 1) is one of the most active volcanic segments in the Andean volcanic arc of South America (Stern, 2004), with a time-averaged eruption rate of 0.5 events/year during the 20th century (Dzierma and Wehrmann, 2012). The rate increased to 1.3 events/year between 2008 and 2016 (Llaima January 01 2008, Chaitén May 02 2008–2009, Llaima April 03 2009, Cordón Caulle June 2011, Peteroa 2010–2011, Hudson October 26 2011, Copahue December 2012, Villarrica 03 March
Cordón Caulle geological background
Cordón Caulle is a long-lived system made up of a graben bounded by two sets of NW-SE trending fissures and the central volcano of a NW-SE volcanic range made up by Cordillera Nevada caldera to the NW and Puyehue volcano to the SE (Fig. 1, Lara et al., 2004, 2006a; 2006b). These three volcanoes have chemically distinct evolutions, with Cordón Caulle erupting only rhyolitic and rhyodacitic lavas in the Holocene (Singer et al., 2008). The lava flows erupted in 1921–1922 and 1960 were sourced from
InSAR methods
In this review I have included observations from almost every SAR mission available since 2003, which include ENVISAT, ALOS-1, TerraSAR-X/TanDEM-X (TSX/TDX), COSMO-SkyMED (CSK), RADARSAT-2 (RS2), UAVSAR, Sentinel-1 (S1) and ALOS-2 (Table 1). Data from ERS-1/2 are only briefly described due to its low quality (Pritchard and Simons, 2004). SAR data from the legacy JERS and RADARSAT-1 and from the newer SAOCOM-1 and PAZ missions are not available.
The first InSAR studies at Cordón Caulle (Pritchard
InSAR observations
In this section I describe all the deformation signals observed between 2003 and 2020 at Cordón Caulle.
Discussion
Here I discuss some interesting observations and lessons learned from the Cordón Caulle InSAR data and models. These include mainly the long term evolution of the plumbing system of the volcano, the triggering mechanism and the temporal evolution of the 2011–2012 eruption.
InSAR technological challenges
Although the InSAR data availability at Cordón Caulle has increased exponentially in the past decade, significant technical challenges remain in this area for a wider use of InSAR. These challenges are the limited and non-ideal data coverage and systematic coherence loss.
Conclusions
In this golden era of InSAR it is impressive how much the technology and the resulting amounts of data have evolved since the ENVISAT mission in the early 2000's leading to outstanding discoveries like the aforementioned sequence of unrest between 2003 and 2020. Many aspects remain to be elucidated from the Cordón Caulle dynamics and here is where I envision that the wealth of InSAR data that will be provided by the next generation InSAR missions (NISAR, Sentinel-1C/D, TanDEM-L, RADARSAT
Data availability
ENVISAT images were provided by the European Space Agency (ESA) and Level 1 SLC images are available at the ESA Online Dissemination site. ALOS-1 data are property of Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and the Japanese Ministerium of Trade and Commerce and are available at the Alaska Satellite Facility by NASA. Sentinel-1A/B SLC data were provided by ESA and distributed by Alaska Satellite Facility and CNES PEPS. TerraSAR-X data were provided by Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgementsd
This review is the result of discussions and collaborations with many colleagues in the world in the past six years. I thank the French Centre National d'Études Spatiales (CNES) for a postdoctoral fellowship, Editor Andr's Folguera for hditor Pablo Euillades for the invitation to participate in this special issue, and many colleagues who in one way or the other have contributed with either data, software, ideas or comments to a better understanding of the dynamics of Cordón Caulle. These
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