Nutrient regulation of somatic growth in teleost fish. The interaction between somatic growth, feeding and metabolism

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Highlights

  • Endocrine and neuroendocrine regulation of somatic growth in fish.

  • Interaction between food intake control and somatic growth regulation.

  • Nutrients role in the control of growth and feeding.

Abstract

This review covers the current knowledge on the regulation of the somatic growth axis and its interaction with metabolism and feeding regulation. The main endocrine and neuroendocrine factors regulating both the growth axis and feeding behavior will be briefly summarized. Recently discovered neuropeptides and peptide hormones will be mentioned in relation to feeding control as well as growth hormone regulation. In addition, the influence of nutrient and nutrient sensing mechanisms on growth axis will be highlighted. We expect that in this process gaps of knowledge will be exposed, stimulating future research in those areas.

Introduction

The process for achieving somatic growth consumes available nutrient and energy (De Roos et al., 2009; Lukas et al., 2011; Sousa et al., 2010). These elements are obtained from the environment by feeding and transformed by metabolic cellular reactions into cell and tissue components. Thus, in fish as well as in other vertebrates, the growth regulatory network should sense nutrient and energy levels and coordinate actions with feed intake and energy balance regulation as well as other energy consuming process such as reproduction (Blanco, 2020; Canosa et al., 2013; Pérez-Sánchez et al., 2018). Clearly, nutrient levels influence fish growth and this is used in aquaculture-related research to establish the nutritional requirements for culture species (Canada et al., 2019; Conde-Sieira et al., 2016; Gao et al., 2019b; Gómez-Requeni et al., 2012, 2013; Meng et al., 2019; Pérez-Sánchez et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2019; Ye et al., 2017) and/or for assessing the suitability of ingredient replacement (Bertucci et al., 2018; Kousoulaki et al., 2018; Uczay et al., 2019; Yao et al., 2018). Nutrient and diet composition represent one of the most relevant environmental factors influencing the somatic growth regulatory axis in fish (Moriyama et al., 2000). Thus, body growth parameters and the expression levels of genes involved in somatic growth have been used to assess the adequacy of diets and culture conditions (Bertucci et al., 2017c, 2018; Conde-Sieira et al., 2016; Dyer et al., 2004; Gómez-Requeni et al., 2004, 2005, 2012, 2013, 2019; Pérez-Sánchez et al., 2018; Picha et al., 2008; Yom Din et al., 2008). In this way, a detailed understanding of mechanisms by which nutrients are sensed by the organism and influence the metabolic and endocrine regulation of growth performance, would be important for aquaculture industry in designing better and more sustainable formulated diets. In addition, as fish share with other vertebrates the main features in terms of regulation of growth, feeding and metabolism, they could serve as good and practical models for human physiology and disease (Matsui, 2017; Volkoff, 2019). Having this in mind, the present review aims to summarize the current knowledge on somatic growth axis regulation and its interaction with both metabolism and feeding control. The influence of nutrient and nutrient sensing mechanisms on growth axis will be highlighted. In additions, gaps of knowledge will be pointed out in attempt to stimulate future research in those areas.

Section snippets

Somatic growth and growth hormone regulation in fish

The endocrine system that regulates post-natal somatic growth is referred as the somatotropic axis which consist of an ensemble of organs and hormones that includes the hypothalamus and its hypophysiotropic factors; the pituitary gland and the growth hormone (GH); the liver and peripheral tissues and the insulin-like growth factors (IGFs). In addition to growth promoting function, GH contributes to several other functions such as fuel mobilization, gonadal development, osmoregulation, feeding,

Central regulation of food intake

The control of feeding and energy balance is highly comparable between mammals and teleost fish and takes place in the integrative feeding centers of the brain (Delgado et al., 2017; Schwartz and Zeltser, 2013; Sobrino-Crespo et al., 2014; Soengas et al., 2018; Volkoff, 2016, 2019). In mammals, it is very well documented that the feeding center is integrated by several brain nuclei such as medio basal arcuate nucleus (ARC), paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (PVH), lateral hypothalamic

Nutrient regulation of food intake and GH secretion

As described in the previous section (1. Introduction), somatic growth and food intake are two strongly interrelated processes regulated not only by food availability but also by the quality of food in terms of its nutrient composition. Therefore, one of the most important factors influencing both the appetite-regulating hormones and growth in fish is the macro- and micro-nutrient composition of their diets (Conde-Sieira and Soengas, 2017; MacKenzie et al., 1998). This topic has gained interest

Perspective

As was discussed in previous sections, diet composition impacts in the endocrine growth axis as well as in the endocrine factors regulating food intake. Factors from both systems are involved in the regulation of some other metabolic functions in fish, but a modification in the expression of the components of the growth axis and the axis regulating food intake can certainly lead to a modification in fish somatic growth. In this regard, diets are an important target to modify fish growth through

Concluding remarks

In this review we have summarized our knowledge on somatic growth regulation and its contact points with the control of food intake and energy balance in teleost fish. We have pointed out the effects of macronutrient in these regulatory networks. The nutrient and energy sensing systems serving as nexus among nutrient/energy levels and hormones were briefly describe. In systematic covering of those topics some aspects requiring more attention were also revealed.

Improving our knowledge on these

Declarations of interest

None.

Acknowledgements

Authors would like to acknowledge the financial support and fellowships provided by Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica (ANPCyT, Argentina); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET, Argentina) and the Emerging Leaders of the Americas Program (ELAP, Canada). Besides, JIB was supported though a Discovery grant granted to Dr Markus Hecker by the National Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC, Canada).

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    Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Instituto Español de Oceanografía, IEO, Subida a Radio Faro 50, 36,390 Vigo, Spain.

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