Abstract
Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating disease with high rates of mortality and morbidity. Galactose lectin-9 (Gal-9) belongs to the family of β-galactoside-binding lectins, which has been shown to play a vital role in immune tolerance and inflammation. However, the function of Gal-9 in ICH has not been fully studied in details. Several experiments were carried out to explore the role of Gal-9 in the late period of ICH. Primarily, ICH models were established in male adult Sprague Dawley (SD) rats. Next, the relative protein levels of Gal-9 at different time points after ICH were examined and the result showed that the level of Gal-9 increased and peaked at the 7th day after ICH. Then we found that when the content of Gal-9 increased, both the number of M2-type microglia and the corresponding anti-inflammatory factors also increased. Through co-immunoprecipitation (CO-IP) analysis, it was found that Gal-9 combines with Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4) during the period of the recovery after ICH. TUNEL staining and Fluoro-Jade B staining (FJB) proved that the amount of cell death decreased with the increase of Gal-9 content. Additionally, several behavioral experiments also demonstrated that when the level of Gal-9 increased, the motor, sensory, learning, and memory abilities of the rats recovered better compared to the ICH group. In short, this study illustrated that Gal-9 takes a crucial role after ICH. Enhancing Gal-9 could alleviate brain injury and promote the recovery of ICH-induced injury, so that Gal-9 may exploit a new pathway for clinical treatment of ICH.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- Gal-9:
-
Galactose lectin-9
- ICH:
-
Intracerebral hemorrhage
- TLR-4:
-
Toll-like receptor-4
- TIM-3:
-
T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3
- SD:
-
Sprague Dawley
- CNS:
-
Central nervous system
- IL-4:
-
Interleukin-4
- IL-13:
-
Interleukin-13
- WB:
-
Western Blotting
- CO-IP:
-
Co-immunoprecipitation
- FJB:
-
Fluoro-Jade B
- CRD:
-
Carbohydrate recognition domain
- DCs:
-
Dendritic cells
- ELISA:
-
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
References
Anderson, A. C. (2012). Tim-3, a negative regulator of anti-tumor immunity. Current Opinion in Immunology, 24(2), 213–216.
Carrillo-Jimenez, A., Deniz, O., Niklison-Chirou, M. V., Ruiz, R., Bezerra-Salomao, K., Stratoulias, V., et al. (2019). TET2 regulates the neuroinflammatory response in microglia. Cell Reports., 29(3), 697e8–713e8.
Cheng, X., Ander, B. P., Jickling, G. C., Zhan, X., Hull, H., Sharp, F. R., et al. (2020). MicroRNA and their target mRNAs change expression in whole blood of patients after intracerebral hemorrhage. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 40(4), 775–786.
Chen, H. L., Liao, F., Lin, T. N., & Liu, F. T. (2014). Galectins and neuroinflammation. Advances in Neurobiology, 9, 517–542.
Chen, S., Yang, Q., Chen, G., & Zhang, J. H. (2015). An update on inflammation in the acute phase of intracerebral hemorrhage. Translational Stroke Research, 6(1), 4–8.
Chen, Z. Q., Yu, H., Li, H. Y., Shen, H. T., Li, X., Zhang, J. Y., et al. (2019). Negative regulation of glial Tim-3 inhibits the secretion of inflammatory factors and modulates microglia to antiinflammatory phenotype after experimental intracerebral hemorrhage in rats. CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 25(6), 674–684.
David, S., & Kroner, A. (2011). Repertoire of microglial and macrophage responses after spinal cord injury. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12(7), 388–399.
Deinsberger, W., Vogel, J., Kuschinsky, W., Auer, L. M., & Boker, D. K. (1996). Experimental intracerebral hemorrhage: Description of a double injection model in rats. Neurological Research, 18(5), 475–477.
Delgado, P., Cuadrado, E., Rosell, A., Alvarez-Sabin, J., Ortega-Aznar, A., Hernandez-Guillamon, M., et al. (2008). Fas system activation in perihematomal areas after spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke, 39(6), 1730–1734.
Ekdahl, C. T., Claasen, J. H., Bonde, S., Kokaia, Z., & Lindvall, O. (2003). Inflammation is detrimental for neurogenesis in adult brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100(23), 13632–13637.
Garcia, J. H., Wagner, S., Liu, K. F., & Hu, X. J. (1995). Neurological deficit and extent of neuronal necrosis attributable to middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats. Statistical validation. Stroke, 26(4), 627–634. discussion 35.
Greenhalgh, A. D., Rothwell, N. J., & Allan, S. M. (2012). An Endovascular perforation model of subarachnoid haemorrhage in rat produces heterogeneous infarcts that increase with blood load. Translational Stroke Research, 3(1), 164–172.
Haber, M., James, J., Kim, J., Sangobowale, M., Irizarry, R., Ho, J., et al. (2018). Minocycline plus N-acteylcysteine induces remyelination, synergistically protects oligodendrocytes and modifies neuroinflammation in a rat model of mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 38(8), 1312–1326.
Hanisch, U. K., & Kettenmann, H. (2007). Microglia: Active sensor and versatile effector cells in the normal and pathologic brain. Nature Neuroscience, 10(11), 1387–1394.
Harwood, N. M., Golden-Mason, L., Cheng, L., Rosen, H. R., & Mengshol, J. A. (2016). HCV-infected cells and differentiation increase monocyte immunoregulatory galectin-9 production. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 99(3), 495–503.
Holderried, T. A. W., de Vos, L., Bawden, E. G., Vogt, T. J., Dietrich, J., Zarbl, R., et al. (2019). Molecular and immune correlates of TIM-3 (HAVCR2) and galectin 9 (LGALS9) mRNA expression and DNA methylation in melanoma. Clinical Epigenetics, 11(1), 161.
Hou, J., Manaenko, A., Hakon, J., Hansen-Schwartz, J., Tang, J., & Zhang, J. H. (2012). Liraglutide, a long-acting GLP-1 mimetic, and its metabolite attenuate inflammation after intracerebral hemorrhage. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 32(12), 2201–2210.
Hua, Y., Schallert, T., Keep, R. F., Wu, J., Hoff, J. T., & Xi, G. (2002). Behavioral tests after intracerebral hemorrhage in the rat. Stroke, 33(10), 2478–2484.
Hu, X., Li, P., Guo, Y., Wang, H., Leak, R. K., Chen, S., et al. (2012). Microglia/macrophage polarization dynamics reveal novel mechanism of injury expansion after focal cerebral ischemia. Stroke, 43(11), 3063–3070.
Hu, X., Leak, R. K., Shi, Y., Suenaga, J., Gao, Y., Zheng, P., et al. (2015). Microglial and macrophage polarization-new prospects for brain repair. Nature Reviews Neurology, 11(1), 56–64.
Jiang, J., Jin, M. S., Kong, F., Cao, D., Ma, H. X., Jia, Z., et al. (2013). Decreased galectin-9 and increased Tim-3 expression are related to poor prognosis in gastric cancer. PLoS ONE, 8(12), e81799.
John, S., & Mishra, R. (2016). Galectin-9: From cell biology to complex disease dynamics. Journal of Biosciences., 41(3), 507–534.
Jolink, W. M., Lindenholz, A., van Etten, E. S., van Nieuwenhuizen, K. M., Schreuder, F. H., Kuijf, H. J., et al. (2019). Contrast leakage distant from the hematoma in patients with spontaneous ICH: A 7 T MRI study. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271678X19852876.
Klebe, D., McBride, D., Flores, J. J., Zhang, J. H., & Tang, J. (2015). Modulating the immune response towards a neuroregenerative peri-injury milieu after cerebral hemorrhage. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology, 10(4), 576–586.
Kwon, M. J., Kim, J., Shin, H., Jeong, S. R., Kang, Y. M., Choi, J. Y., et al. (2013). Contribution of macrophages to enhanced regenerative capacity of dorsal root ganglia sensory neurons by conditioning injury. The Journal of Neuroscience, 33(38), 15095–15108.
Lan, X., Han, X., Liu, X., & Wang, J. (2019). Inflammatory responses after intracerebral hemorrhage: From cellular function to therapeutic targets. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 39(1), 184–186.
Leitner, G. R., Wenzel, T. J., Marshall, N., Gates, E. J., & Klegeris, A. (2019). Targeting toll-like receptor 4 to modulate neuroinflammation in central nervous system disorders. Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets. https://doi.org/10.1080/14728222.2019.1676416.
Liu, Z., Fan, Y., Won, S. J., Neumann, M., Hu, D., Zhou, L., et al. (2007). Chronic treatment with minocycline preserves adult new neurons and reduces functional impairment after focal cerebral ischemia. Stroke, 38(1), 146–152.
Liu, Z., Han, H., He, X., Li, S., Wu, C., Yu, C., et al. (2016). Expression of the galectin-9-Tim-3 pathway in glioma tissues is associated with the clinical manifestations of glioma. Oncology Letters, 11(3), 1829–1834.
Macellari, F., Paciaroni, M., Agnelli, G., & Caso, V. (2014). Neuroimaging in intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke, 45(3), 903–908.
Matheson, R., Chida, K., Lu, H., Clendaniel, V., Fisher, M., Thomas, A., et al. (2020). Neuroprotective effects of selective inhibition of histone deacetylase 3 in experimental stroke. Translational Stroke Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12975-020-00783-3.
Merani, S., Chen, W., & Elahi, S. (2015). The bitter side of sweet: The role of Galectin-9 in immunopathogenesis of viral infections. Reviews in Medical Virology, 25(3), 175–186.
Miron, V. E., Boyd, A., Zhao, J. W., Yuen, T. J., Ruckh, J. M., Shadrach, J. L., et al. (2013). M2 microglia and macrophages drive oligodendrocyte differentiation during CNS remyelination. Nature Neuroscience, 16(9), 1211–1218.
Mosser, D. M., & Edwards, J. P. (2008). Exploring the full spectrum of macrophage activation. Nature Reviews Immunology, 8(12), 958–969.
Nishikawa, H., Nakatsuka, Y., Shiba, M., Kawakita, F., Fujimoto, M., Suzuki, H., et al. (2018). Increased plasma Galectin-3 preceding the development of delayed cerebral infarction and eventual poor outcome in non-severe aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Translational Stroke Research, 9(2), 110–119.
Nishino, M., Ramaiya, N. H., Hatabu, H., & Hodi, F. S. (2017). Monitoring immune-checkpoint blockade: Response evaluation and biomarker development. Nature Reviews Clinical Oncology, 14(11), 655–668.
Premeaux, T. A., D’Antoni, M. L., Abdel-Mohsen, M., Pillai, S. K., Kallianpur, K. J., Nakamoto, B. K., et al. (2018). Elevated cerebrospinal fluid Galectin-9 is associated with central nervous system immune activation and poor cognitive performance in older HIV-infected individuals. Journal of NeuroVirology, 25(2), 150–161.
Ren, J., Wu, X., Huang, J., Cao, X., Yuan, Q., Zhang, D., et al. (2020). Intracranial pressure monitoring-aided management associated with favorable outcomes in patients with hypertension-related spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Translational Stroke Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12975-020-00798-w.
Stancic, M., van Horssen, J., Thijssen, V. L., Gabius, H. J., van der Valk, P., Hoekstra, D., et al. (2011). Increased expression of distinct galectins in multiple sclerosis lesions. Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology, 37(6), 654–671.
Sukumari-Ramesh, S., Alleyne, C. H., Jr., & Dhandapani, K. M. (2016). The histone deacetylase inhibitor suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) confers acute neuroprotection after intracerebral hemorrhage in mice. Translational Stroke Research, 7(2), 141–148.
Wang, J., & Dore, S. (2007). Inflammation after intracerebral hemorrhage. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, 27(5), 894–908.
Wan, S., Cheng, Y., Jin, H., Guo, D., Hua, Y., Keep, R. F., et al. (2016). Microglia activation and polarization after intracerebral hemorrhage in mice: The role of protease-activated receptor-1. Translational Stroke Research, 7(6), 478–487.
Wu, C. H., Chen, C. C., Hung, T. H., Chuang, Y. C., Chao, M., Shyue, S. K., et al. (2019). Activation of TrkB/Akt signaling by a TrkB receptor agonist improves long-term histological and functional outcomes in experimental intracerebral hemorrhage. Journal of Biomedical Science, 26(1), 53.
Wu, X., Luo, J., Liu, H., Cui, W., Guo, K., Zhao, L., et al. (2020). Recombinant adiponectin peptide ameliorates brain injury following intracerebral hemorrhage by suppressing astrocyte-derived inflammation via the inhibition of Drp1-mediated mitochondrial fission. Translational Stroke Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12975-019-00768-x.
Xia, Y., Pu, H., Leak, R. K., Shi, Y., Mu, H., Hu, X., et al. (2018). Tissue plasminogen activator promotes white matter integrity and functional recovery in a murine model of traumatic brain injury. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(39), E9230–E9238.
Yasinska, I. M., Sakhnevych, S. S., Pavlova, L., TeoHansenSelno, A., TeuscherAbeleira, A. M., Benlaouer, O., et al. (2019). The Tim-3-Galectin-9 pathway and its regulatory mechanisms in human breast cancer. Frontiers in Immunology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.01594.
Young, G. H., Tang, S. C., Wu, V. C., Wang, K. C., Nong, J. Y., Huang, P. Y., et al. (2019). The functional role of hemojuvelin in acute ischemic stroke. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271678X19861448.
Zhang, Y., Chen, Y., Wu, J., Manaenko, A., Yang, P., Tang, J., et al. (2015). Activation of dopamine D2 receptor suppresses neuroinflammation through alphab-crystalline by inhibition of NF-kappaB Nuclear translocation in experimental ICH mice model. Stroke, 46(9), 2637–2646.
Zhang, X. D., Fan, Q. Y., Qiu, Z., & Chen, S. (2018). MiR-7 alleviates secondary inflammatory response of microglia caused by cerebral hemorrhage through inhibiting TLR4 expression. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 22(17), 5597–5604.
Zhang, P., Wang, T., Zhang, D., Zhang, Z., Yuan, S., Zhang, J., et al. (2019). Exploration of MST1-mediated secondary brain injury induced by intracerebral hemorrhage in rats via hippo signaling pathway. Translational Stroke Research, 10(6), 729–743.
Zhang, S., Hu, Z. W., Luo, H. Y., Mao, C. Y., Tang, M. B., Li, Y. S., et al. (2020). AAV/BBB-mediated gene transfer of CHIP attenuates brain injury following experimental intracerebral hemorrhage. Translational Stroke Research, 11(2), 296–309.
Zoufal, V., Mairinger, S., Krohn, M., Wanek, T., Filip, T., Sauberer, M., et al. (2019). Measurement of cerebral ABCC1 transport activity in wild-type and APP/PS1–21 mice with positron emission tomography. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271678X19854541.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2018YFC1312600 and 2018YFC1312601), National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 81873741), Suzhou Science and Technology (No. SS2019056), Jiangsu Commission of Health (No. K2019001), Suzhou Key Medical Centre (No. Szzx201501), and Scientific Department of Jiangsu Province (No. BE2017656).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
All protocols for laboratory animals are approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee of Soochow University and implemented in accordance with the manuals of the National Institutes of Health. The ethical approval Reference Number is 2018-198.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Tianyu Liang and Cheng Ma have contributed equally to this work.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Liang, T., Ma, C., Wang, T. et al. Galectin-9 Promotes Neuronal Restoration via Binding TLR-4 in a Rat Intracerebral Hemorrhage Model. Neuromol Med 23, 267–284 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12017-020-08611-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12017-020-08611-5