Abstract
This study applied the waterscapes framework to investigate the socio-political contestations associated with water use patterns and community–environment interactions in District 12, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. In particular, groundwater resources were investigated via a mixed-method study combining water sampling, social surveys, a Groundwater Quality Index (GWQI), and GIS. In total, 33 groundwater samples were collected between June and August 2018, measuring pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, nitrite, nitrates, ammonia, sulfates, aluminum, iron, arsenic, and total coliform. An in-depth interview was conducted with a key stakeholder providing water service to the District, and 100 household surveys were administered via face-to-face interviews with community residents. Despite piped water availability throughout the district, we found that the community still utilizes groundwater for general domestic use. High concentrations of relevant pollutants were detected in the wells, substantially consistent with the respondents complains about the water smells and turbidity. The gastrointestinal disease was a known issue, yet less than a quarter of respondents associated these symptoms with the polluted water resources. Extensive groundwater use implies an economic artifact associated with the recent social experiences of the predominantly migrant worker community. Results from individual water quality measurements were incorporated into a GWQI following the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment approach. The calculated values were subsequently incorporated into GIS to visualize the spatial distributions of the groundwater quality across the study area, which were strongly associated with the results from the large-scale survey. The government of Vietnam has developed an official WQI guideline; however, it only addresses surface water with a different format than the GWQI applied in this study. Our GWQI henceforth contributed a prototype evaluation tool that could be applied in other urban areas of Vietnam to help assess groundwater resource health.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ahlers, R., Cleaver, F., Rusca, M., & Schwartz, K. (2014). Informal space in the urban waterscape: Disaggregation and co-production of water services. Water Alternatives, 7(1), 1–14.
Akkoyunlu, A., & Akiner, M. E. (2012). Pollution evaluation in streams using water quality indices: A case study from Turkey’s Sapanca Lake Basin. Ecological Indicators, 18, 501–511.
Amore, L. (2012). The United Nations World Water Development Report–N 4—Groundwater and global change: Trends, opportunities and challenges (Vol. 1). Geneva: UNESCO.
Anderson, A., Karar, E., & Farolfi, S. (2008). Synthesis: IWRM lessons for implementation. Water SA, 34(6), 665–669.
Anh, L. D., Tuong, L. Q., Loc, H. H., & Thanh, T. (2018). Assessment the alum in groundwater in District 12, Ho Chi Minh City. Journal of Science and Technology Development, 4, 16–21.
APHA/AWWA/WEF. (2017). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater (23rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Public Health Association. ISBN 9780875532356.
Bhargava, D. S. (1983). Use of water quality index for river classification and zoning of Ganga River. Environmental Pollution Series B, Chemical and Physical, 6(1), 51–67.
Biswas, A. K. (2008). Integrated water resources management: Is it working? International Journal of Water Resources Development, 24(1), 5–22.
Borchardt, D., Bogardi, J. J., & Ibisch, R. B. (Eds.). (2016). Integrated water resources management: Concept, research and implementation. Heidelberg: Springer.
Bordalo, A. A., Nilsumranchit, W., & Chalermwat, K. (2001). Water quality and uses of the Bangpakong River (Eastern Thailand). Water Research, 35(15), 3635–3642.
Bouleau, G. (2014). The co-production of science and waterscapes: The case of the Seine and the Rhône Rivers, France. Geoforum, 57, 248–257.
Boyacioglu, H. (2010). Utilization of the water quality index method as a classification tool. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 167(1–4), 115–124.
Brown, R. M., McClelland, N. I., Deininger, R. A., & Tozer, R. G. (1970). A water quality index—Do we dare. Water & Sewage Works, 117(10), 339–343.
Büscher, C. H. (2019). Imagineering waterscapes: The case of the Dutch water sector. Water Alternatives, 12(3), 814–835.
Cadenasso, M. L., Pickett, S. T. A., Groffman, P. M., Band, L. E., Brush, G. S., Galvin, M. F., et al. (2008). Exchanges across land–water–scape boundaries in urban systems: Strategies for reducing nitrate pollution. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1134(1), 213–232.
Christensen, T. H., Kjeldsen, P., Bjerg, P. L., Jensen, D. L., Christensen, J. B., Baun, A., et al. (2001). Biogeochemistry of landfill leachate plumes. Applied Geochemistry, 16(7–8), 659–718.
Cohen, A., & Davidson, S. (2011). The watershed approach: Challenges, antecedents, and the transition from technical tool to governance unit. Water Alternatives, 4(1), 1.
Cordoba, E. B., Martinez, A. C., & Ferrer, E. V. (2010). Water quality indicators: Comparison of a probabilistic index and a general quality index. The case of the Confederación Hidrográfica del Júcar (Spain). Ecological Indicators, 10(5), 1049–1054.
Cude, C. G. (2001). Oregon water quality index a tool for evaluating water quality management effectiveness. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 37(1), 125–137.
de Meyer, C. M., Rodríguez, J. M., Carpio, E. A., García, P. A., Stengel, C., & Berg, M. (2017). Arsenic, manganese and aluminum contamination in groundwater resources of Western Amazonia (Peru). Science of the Total Environment, 607, 1437–1450.
Debels, P., Figueroa, R., Urrutia, R., Barra, R., & Niell, X. (2005). Evaluation of water quality in the Chillán River (Central Chile) using physicochemical parameters and a modified water quality index. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 110(1–3), 301–322.
Department of Natural Resources and Environment. (2013). Current state of groundwater. Retrieved March 12, 2020, from http://www.donre.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/thong-tin-hoat-dong/Lists/Posts/Post.aspx?List=69909867-b3bb-4e0c-9a71-f2a26c0b25bb&ID=3017. (in Vietnamese).
Drangert, J. O., & Cronin, A. A. (2004). Use and abuse of the urban groundwater resource: Implications for a new management strategy. Hydrogeology Journal, 12(1), 94–102.
Dunnette, D. A. (1979). A geographically variable water quality index used in Oregon. Journal (Water Pollution Control Federation), 51, 53–61.
Duong, B. D., Fenn, M., Digregorio, M., & Du, T. T. L. (2013). Groundwater in Viet Nam: The problem we can’t see. Retrieved February 25, 2020, from http://vaci.org.vn/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=50:groundwater-in-vietnam-the-problems-we-can’t-see-p1&Itemid=144.
Famiglietti, J. S. (2014). The global groundwater crisis. Nature Climate Change, 4(11), 945.
Figueroa-Miranda, S., Tuxpan-Vargas, J., Ramos-Leal, J. A., Hernández-Madrigal, V. M., & Villaseñor-Reyes, C. I. (2018). Land subsidence by groundwater over-exploitation from aquifers in tectonic valleys of Central Mexico: A review. Engineering Geology, 246, 91–106.
Flaten, T. P. (1990). Geographical associations between aluminium in drinking water and death rates with dementia (including Alzheimer’s disease), Parkinson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in Norway. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 12(1–2), 152–167.
Foster, S., Chilton, J., Nijsten, G. J., & Richts, A. (2013). Groundwater—A global focus on the ‘local resource’. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 5(6), 685–695.
Gitau, M. W., Chen, J., & Ma, Z. (2016). Water quality indices as tools for decision making and management. Water Resources Management, 30(8), 2591–2610.
Howard, G., Pedley, S., Barrett, M., Nalubega, M., & Johal, K. (2003). Risk factors contributing to microbiological contamination of shallow groundwater in Kampala, Uganda. Water Research, 37(14), 3421–3429.
Irvine, K., Lakhena, C., Phallin, C., Sreyneang, C., Saophuong, N., Putheary, N., et al. (2010). Integrated water resources management—Opportunities and challenges for Cambodia. In K. Irvine, T. Murphy, V. Vanchan, & S. Vermette (Eds.), Water resources and development in Southeast Asia (pp. 108–136). Boston: Pearson Learning Solutions.
Irvine, K. N., Chang, C. H., & Das, D. (2016). Waterscapes Asia: Concepts and practices. Journal of Geography, Environment and Earth Science International, 5, 1–9.
Jacqmin-Gadda, H., Commenges, D., Letenneur, L., & Dartigues, J. F. (1996). Silica and aluminum in drinking water and cognitive impairment in the elderly. Epidemiology, 7(3), 281–285.
Jewitt, G. (2002). Can integrated water resources management sustain the provision of ecosystem goods and services? Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 27(11–22), 887–895.
Kachroud, M., Trolard, F., Kefi, M., Jebari, S., & Bourrié, G. (2019). Water quality indices: Challenges and application limits in the literature. Water, 11(2), 361.
Khan, A. A., Paterson, R., & Khan, H. (2004). Modification and application of the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCME WQI) for the communication of drinking water quality data in Newfoundland and Labrador. Water Quality Research Journal, 39(3), 285–293.
Khan, A. A., Tobin, A., Paterson, R., Khan, H., & Warren, R. (2005). Application of CCME procedures for deriving site-specific water quality guidelines for the CCME Water Quality Index. Water Quality Research Journal, 40(4), 448–456.
Khatri, N., Tyagi, S., & Rawtani, D. (2017). Recent strategies for the removal of iron from water: A review. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 19, 291–304.
Kostyla, C., Bain, R., Cronk, R., & Bartram, J. (2015). Seasonal variation of fecal contamination in drinking water sources in developing countries: A systematic review. Science of the Total Environment, 514, 333–343.
Kumar, D., & Alappat, B. J. (2009). NSF-water quality index: Does it represent the experts’ opinion? Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management, 13(1), 75–79.
Lamastra, L., Balderacchi, M., & Trevisan, M. (2016). Inclusion of emerging organic contaminants in groundwater monitoring plans. MethodsX, 3, 459–476.
Lapworth, D. J., Baran, N., Stuart, M. E., & Ward, R. S. (2012). Emerging organic contaminants in groundwater: A review of sources, fate and occurrence. Environmental Pollution, 163, 287–303.
Linton, J. (2014). Modern water and its discontents: A history of hydrosocial renewal. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water, 1(1), 111–120.
Liou, S. M., Lo, S. L., & Wang, S. H. (2004). A generalized water quality index for Taiwan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 96(1–3), 35–52.
Loc, H. H., Babel, M. S., Weesakul, S., Irvine, K. N., & Minh, P. (2015). Exploratory assessment of SUDS feasibility in Nhieu Loc-Thi Nghe Basin, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Author (s) Ho Huu Loc, Vietnam. British Journal of Environment and Climate Change, 5(2), 91–103.
Loc, H. H., Diep, N. T. H., Tuan, V. T., & Shimizu, Y. (2018). An analytical approach in accounting for social values of ecosystem services in a Ramsar site: A case study in the Mekong Delta. Vietnam. Ecological Indicators, 89, 118–129.
Loc, H. H., Duyen, P. M., Ballatore, T. J., Hoang, N., Lan, M., & Gupta, A. D. (2017). Applicability of sustainable urban drainage systems: An evaluation by multi-criteria analysis. Environment Systems & Decisions, 37(3), 332.
Martyn, C. N., Osmond, C., Edwardson, J. A., Barker, D. J. P., Harris, E. C., & Lacey, R. F. (1989). Geographical relation between Alzheimer’s disease and aluminium in drinking water. The Lancet, 333(8629), 59–62.
McDonnell, R. A. (2008). Challenges for integrated water resources management: How do we provide the knowledge to support truly integrated thinking? International Journal of Water Resources Development, 24(1), 131–143.
Medema, W., McIntosh, B., & Jeffrey, P. (2008). From premise to practice: A critical assessment of integrated water resources management and adaptive management approaches in the water sector. Ecology and Society, 13(2), 29.
Mohebbi, M. R., Saeedi, R., Montazeri, A., Vaghefi, K. A., Labbafi, S., Oktaie, S., et al. (2013). Assessment of water quality in groundwater resources of Iran using a modified drinking water quality index (GWQI). Ecological Indicators, 30, 28–34.
Murphy, B. L., & Katz, M. F. (1998). Isotope methods. Environmental Claims Journal, 10, 135–150.
Murphy, T., Phan, K., Yumvihoze, E., Irvine, K., Wilson, K., Lean, D., et al. (2018a). Groundwater irrigation and arsenic speciation in rice in Cambodia. Journal of Health & Pollution, 8(19), 9.
Murphy, T., Phan, K., Yumvihoze, E., Irvine, K., Wilson, K., Lean, D., et al. (2018b). Effects of arsenic, iron and fertilizers in soil on rice in Cambodia. Journal of Health & Pollution, 8(19), 12.
Neri, L., & Hewitt, D. (1991). Aluminium, Alzheimer’s disease, and drinking water. Lancet, 338, 390.
Palupi, K., Sumengen, S., Inswiasri, S., Agustina, L., Nunik, S. A., Sunarya, W., et al. (1995). River water quality study in the vicinity of Jakarta. Water Science and Technology, 31(9), 17–25.
Pesce, S. F., & Wunderlin, D. A. (2000). Use of water quality indices to verify the impact of Córdoba City (Argentina) on Suquı́a River. Water Research, 34(11), 2915–2926.
QCVN 01. (2009). National technical regulation on drinking water quality. Approved by Vietnam Ministry of Health on June 17th 2009. Effective since December 1st 2009.
Rahman, A. U. (1996). Groundwater as source of contamination for water supply in rapidly growing megacities of Asia: Case of Karachi, Pakistan. Water Science and Technology, 34(7–8), 285–292.
Regmi, R. K., Mishra, B. K., Masago, Y., Luo, P., Toyozumi-Kojima, A., & Jalilov, S. M. (2017). Applying a water quality index model to assess the water quality of the major rivers in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 189(8), 382.
Salcedo-Sánchez, E. R., Hoyos, S. E. G., Alberich, M. V. E., & Morales, M. M. (2016). Application of water quality index to evaluate groundwater quality (temporal and spatial variation) of an intensively exploited aquifer (Puebla valley, Mexico). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 188(10), 573.
Selvam, S., Manimaran, G., Sivasubramanian, P., Balasubramanian, N., & Seshunarayana, T. (2014). GIS-based evaluation of water quality index of groundwater resources around Tuticorin coastal city, South India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 71(6), 2847–2867.
Sethy, S. N., Syed, T. H., & Kumar, A. (2017). Evaluation of groundwater quality in parts of the Southern Gangetic Plain using water quality indices. Environmental Earth Sciences, 76(3), 116.
Sharma, D., & Kansal, A. (2011). Water quality analysis of River Yamuna using water quality index in the national capital territory, India (2000–2009). Applied Water Science, 1(3–4), 147–157.
Shiklomanov, I. A., & Rodda, J. C. (Eds.). (2004). World water resources at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Smith, D. G. (1990). A better water quality indexing system for rivers and streams. Water Research, 24(10), 1237–1244.
Sultana, F. (2010). Living in hazardous waterscapes: Gendered vulnerabilities and experiences of floods and disasters. Environmental Hazards, 9(1), 43–53.
Sultana, F. (2013). Water, technology, and development: Transformations of development technonatures in changing waterscapes. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 31(2), 337–353.
Swyngedouw, E. (1999). Modernity and hybridity: Nature, regeneracionismo, and the production of the Spanish waterscape, 1890–1930. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 89(3), 443–465.
Swyngedouw, E., Kaika, M., & Castro, E. (2002). Urban water: A political-ecology perspective. Built Environment, 28(2), 124–137.
Tortajada, C., & Biswas, A. K. (2017). The rapidly changing global water management landscape. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 33(6), 849–851.
Tyagi, S., Sharma, B., Singh, P., & Dobhal, R. (2013). Water quality assessment in terms of water quality index. American Journal of Water Resources, 1(3), 34–38.
Varis, O., Biswas, A. K., Tortajada, C., & Lundqvist, J. (2006). Megacities and water management. Water Resources Development, 22(2), 377–394.
Vermette, S. J., Irvine, K. N., & Drake, J. J. (1987). Elemental and size distribution characteristics of urban sediments: Hamilton, Canada. Environmental Technology, 8(1–12), 619–634.
Vietnam Environment Administration. Decision No. 879/QĐ-TCMT. Handbook of water quality index. Retrieved from http://vea.gov.vn/Lists/VanBanQPPL/Attachments/4373/QD_879_QDTCMT.htm.
Vo, N. S., & Ton, T. L. (2017). Research on developing groundwater quality index (GWQI) to assess groundwater quality in District 12, Ho Chi Minh City. Retrieved on November 22, 2019, from https://moitruongetc.com/nghien-cuu-nuoc-thai/. (in Vietnamese).
Wagh, V. M., Panaskar, D. B., Muley, A. A., & Mukate, S. V. (2017). Groundwater suitability evaluation by CCME WQI model for Kadava River basin, Nashik, Maharashtra, India. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 3(2), 557–565.
Wang, J., Huang, J., Rozelle, S., Huang, Q., & Blanke, A. (2007). Agriculture and groundwater development in northern China: Trends, institutional responses, and policy options. Water Policy, 9(S1), 61–74.
Warner, K. (2000). Analysis of nutrients, selected inorganic constituents, and trace elements in water from Illinois community-supply wells. In U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 99-4152.
WHO. (2011). Hardness in drinking-water. Background Document for Development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/chemicals/hardness.pdf.
Wills, M., & Irvine, K. N. (1996). Application of the national sanitation foundation water quality index in Cazenovia Creek, NY, pilot watershed management project. Middle States Geographer, 1996, 95–104.
World Health Organization. (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality (4th ed., p. 340). Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1462-0758(00)00006-6.
Zhou, C., Gong, H., Chen, B., Li, X., Li, J., Gao, M., et al. (2019). Quantifying the contribution of multiple factors to land subsidence in the Beijing Plain, China with machine learning technology. Geomorphology, 335, 48–61.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the officer at SAWACO, who had been very generous in providing various critical background information of the study. Our appreciation extends to all the students of Nguyen Tat Thanh University who participated in the social surveys. Last but not least, we are in great debt to all the respondents’ willing contributions, without which this research could not have been completed.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Anh, L.D., Loc, H.H., Irvine, K.N. et al. The waterscape of groundwater exploitation for domestic uses in District 12, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Environ Dev Sustain 23, 7652–7669 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00938-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-00938-0