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Article

The Evolution of Biodiesel Policies in China over the Period 2000–2019

School of Political Science and Public Administration, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Processes 2020, 8(8), 948; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080948
Submission received: 9 July 2020 / Revised: 28 July 2020 / Accepted: 4 August 2020 / Published: 6 August 2020

Abstract

:
The Chinese government launched policies supporting biodiesel production and innovation to meet sustainable energy demands under rapid economic and social development. This study systematically investigates the dynamic transitions of biodiesel policies in China regarding policy contents and policy networks. We performed a content analysis in this study and used NVivo12 software to support the analysis process. The results highlighted some issues. First, the Chinese government supported the development of biodiesel from multiple policy objectives and adopted various policy instruments, eventually transforming biodiesel in China from the first- to second-generation. Second, the State Council was the main institution to promote biodiesel policies, and the National Development and Reform Commission under the State Council burdened most of the responsibilities of policy implementation. Most of the policies were issued at a lower level of administration rather than a higher level of decision-making. Biodiesel policies in China were gradually detailed, and they constantly established a system of technology and product innovation.

1. Introduction

Biodiesel reduces using fossil fuels and considerably decreases the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) and became significant for renewable energy [1,2,3,4]. First-generation biodiesel, currently in widespread production, is derived from various feedstocks, such as used cooking oil, and second-generation biodiesel, only a few of which are close to large-scale commercialization, is derived from multiple feedstocks and refining technologies, such as algae [5,6]. Since the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1992 revealed the principle for the transformation to more sustainable modes of production and consumption, the Kyoto Protocol, which came into force in 2005, required Annex I countries (mostly developed countries) to reduce their GHG emissions to 5% below the levels of 1990. Once the Kyoto Protocol ends in 2020, the Paris Agreement, which came into force in 2016, should continue strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change and keep the global average temperature well below 2 °C above preindustrial levels. Under this agreement, both developed and newly industrialized countries were required to submit emissions reduction targets based on their nationally determined contributions [7]. Therefore, national governments globally accelerated the production and innovation of biodiesel as a solution for reducing GHG emissions [8,9,10,11,12].
China, as one of the newly industrialized countries, launched policies to support biodiesel production and innovation to meet sustainable energy demands under rapid economic and social development [13,14]. This article evaluates biodiesel policies according to the research, technology, development, and innovation (RTDI) policies of biodiesel. Technological Policy of Pollution Control for Diesel Vehicles, introduced in 2003, revealed the starting point at which China’s government formally encouraged the innovation of biodiesel to reduce GHG emissions and mitigate climate change. After the 11th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Biological Industry in 2007, biodiesel was, for the first time, formally included in the long-term national industrial plan for the development of biotechnology. It was also established as a domestic industry to help the country realize opportunities for the innovation of biotechnology. Only after the 12th Five-Year Plan for Bioenergy Development issued in 2012, biodiesel was officially embedded in the specific national long-term plan of bioenergy and synthetically supported as a strategic industry that would speed up technological innovation of bioenergy, optimize energy supply, and achieve a sustainable low-carbon economy. As policy instruments transitioned, the priority of multiple policy objectives for the development of biodiesel evolved. Moreover, the policy networks that implemented these policies also exhibited divergent dynamics in different periods, which are worthy of further exploration [15,16].
This article adopts the content analysis method and systematically investigates the dynamic transitions of biodiesel policies in China. Since no literature synthetically portraying the evolution of China’s biodiesel policies exists, we make one of the first attempts to fill the empirical gaps of current research. The theme of this article explores the evolution of policy contents and actors’ networks, which incentivized policy change. Therefore, we set up two research questions: (1) How did biodiesel policies transit in China regarding policy objectives and policy instruments? (2) How did policy networks of biodiesel evolve through the transitions of the policies? The method of content analysis was adopted to survey the two research questions through the three phases of preparation, organization, and reporting of results to increase the trustworthiness of our study [16,17]. First, we constructed an analytical framework, involving three dimensions, namely the date of policy promotion, the structural hierarchy within the government and policy types to review the policy texts. Then, to investigate the evolution of policy contents, we encoded the analysis categories based on existing literature. Finally, we discuss our results logically regarding the transitions of policy contents and the evolution of policy networks. The rest of the article is organized into four sections. Section 2 focuses on the research method, Section 3 presents the results of policy transitions, Section 4 portrays the evolution of policy networks, and Section 5 discusses and concludes the article.

2. Research Method and Analysis Processes

This study adopted content analysis as a research method. As described by Elo and Kyngas [18], content analysis is a widely used qualitative research method, and it conceptually describes the empirical phenomenon. Since we want to explain the empirical experiences of China’s biodiesel policies based on the fundamental concepts of policy analysis, content analysis is a suitable research method for our study. Following Elo et al. [19], to improve the trustworthiness of a content analysis study, researchers should scrutinize the indications at every phase of the analysis process, including the preparation, organization, and reporting of results. The preparation phase must identify the trustworthiness of the data collection and sampling strategy, the organization phase is concerned with the categorization and interpretation and the reporting phase should report the results systematically and logically. We display the analysis processes of the preparation and organization phases in this section, and we further show the results in Section 3 and Section 4.

2.1. Data Collection and Sampling Strategy

First, we collected data by searching for the official websites of the institutions within the central government. These websites included the Communist Party of China Central Committee, the National People’s Congress (NPC), and the State Council and its subordinate ministries, including the National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Finance, and Ministry of Science and Technology. We obtained publicly promulgated policies since the reform and opening in the 1970s addressing the development of biodiesel by backtracking and searching for the relevant contents in the literal materials and policy texts. Since relatively fewer policies related to specifically biodiesel exist, our search terms included biodiesel and other related terms, such as bioenergy, renewable energy, new energy, and recycling economy. Finally, we collected the initial data of 63 policies issued by the institutions of the central government from 2003 to the end of 2019.
We purposively sampled our data, ensuring the correctness of the selected policies and rigorously shifted through 63 policies following two principles. First, only the documents whose main contents or at least a part of the contents are closely related to the development of biodiesel were selected. Second, the policy must be a legislative document or a normative document that was officially issued by the government, such as laws, plans, opinions, and notices. We identified 45 samples of effective policies (Table 1).
After we collected policy documents concerning the development of biodiesel in China, we organized the policy texts of 45 policies following the analytical framework originally established by Bai et al. [20]. The policy texts were reviewed by considering three dimensions, namely the dates of policy promotion, the structural hierarchy, and policy types (Figure 1). The policy promotion dates were mainly used to analyze the transitions of policy objectives and policy instruments, and they were divided into different periods, which will be further examined in Section 3. A structural hierarchy was adopted to express the changes of policy networks and displayed the longitudinal governance frameworks for decisions and the implementation of biodiesel policies. Furthermore, policy types were used to analyze the levels between policies, deepening the analysis of policy evolution, and changes of policy networks over time. The analytical framework in practice laid the foundation for the later encoding of policy texts.

2.2. Content Encoding and Categorisation

The analytical categories were organized according to our research questions. As suggested by Hsieh and Shannon [21], a directed approach to content analysis is to validate or extend existing theory or research. Researchers begin coding by identifying key concepts or variables that construct the research questions. While the analytical categories are established depending on the research questions, the operational definitions for each category should be determined based on existing theory or research. Following the suggestions of Hsieh and Shannon [21], we established our analytical categories in two steps. First, we searched for categories based on existing literature. As described by Sabatier and Mazmanian [22] and Howlett [23], the transitions of policies included the evolution of policy objectives and policy instruments. Since our first research question explored the transitions of biodiesel policies in China, we began to search for the proper terms presenting the policy objectives and policy instruments of biodiesel. Second, the RTDI policies of renewables frequently supported biodiesel as a type of renewable energy. The common policy objectives for the development of renewables in most countries, as narrated by Ramos et al. [11], Lipp [24], Horst [25], Winzer [26], and Naylor and Higgins [27], included environmental sustainability, energy supply continuity, industrial development, technology innovation, and rural development. Moreover, following Linden et al. [28], Carley [29], Liao [30], and Amstalden et al. [31], the economic measures (financial support and market configuration) and administrative measures (standard control) were frequently-implemented policy instruments in all governments, aiming at supporting renewable energy projects. Therefore, we adopted the categories referring to economic and administrative policy instruments. Each category, as suggested by Hsieh and Shannon [21], was defined based on existing literature. Table 2 shows the operational definitions for each category.
Once they were decided, we allocated a code to each category and used the pre-examined codes to encode the 45 selected samples. Table 3 shows the codes from A to L, which were given to match each of the 12 analytical categories. While the codes from A to E revealed the analytical categories of policy objectives, the codes from F to L represented the policy instruments. Table 3 also shows the calculation of the frequency of these codes in the three periods using the software of NVivo12. Figure 2 shows a two-dimensional distribution map of the policy texts, and Table 4 shows the embeddedness of the analysis codes of each policy document. As shown in Figure 2 and Table 4, the texts of 45 policy documents were illustrated following the format of document number–chapter number–clause number. The document number is the number allocated to each policy in Table 1, and the chapter number refers to the appearance of biodiesel in the chapters of each policy document. Moreover, a clause number examines the appearance of biodiesel in the clauses of each chapter. For example, the Renewable Energy Law in 2005 was labeled as Number 1 in Table 1. As Clause 16 of Chapter 4 of the Law appeared in Code B (Energy Supply Continuity), Code G (Standard Control) and Code J (Market Configuration) regarding biodiesel development, the format given to the Renewable Energy Law in Table 4 was 1-4-16BGJ. In Figure 2, the format given to the Renewable Energy Law under Code B, Code G, and Code J in the first period was 1-4-16.

3. Results of Policy Transitions

We adopted 2003, 2007, and 2012 as three milestones in which to divide the transitions of biodiesel policies in China. Accordingly, policy transitions were divided into three periods: the emergence of biodiesel policies (2003 to the beginning of 2007), initial inclusion within the national industrial plan (mid-2007 to 2011), and embeddedness within the national bioenergy plan (2012 to 2019). Figure 3a shows that the change of total policy volumes increased from 9 policies between 2003 and the beginning of 2007 to 19 between 2012 and 2019. Most policies as shown in Figure 3b were on the low level of notices and opinions. Table 5 displays the annual production of biodiesel in China. The policy transitions are further discussed below.

3.1. Transitions of Policy Objectives and Policy Instruments

3.1.1. The Emergence of Biodiesel Policies (2003 to the Beginning of 2007)

The Technological Policy of Pollution Control for Diesel Vehicles launched in 2003, labeled the emergence of the first national biodiesel policies in China. The policy, jointly promoted by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Ministry of Commerce, and Ministry of Science and Technology, was a short-term plan for the development of biodiesel. It only revealed the policy objectives to encourage technology innovation of diesel made from biomass to control air pollution and achieve environmental sustainability. Afterward, the Renewable Energy Law, legislated in 2005 by the National People’s Congress (shortened to be NPC), provided the first legal foundation to legitimize the policy support for biodiesel. The main policy objectives of the law were to encourage the development and innovation of renewable energies. Since biodiesel is considered part of renewable energy, the government should foster domestic technological innovation and industrial development of biodiesel to increase energy supply and achieve environmental sustainability. Among the nine policies issued between 2005 and the beginning of 2007 (Figure 3), policy objectives for the development of biodiesel (Table 2) concentrated on energy supply continuity (14.43%), technology innovation (13.46%), and environmental sustainability (11.54%). Technology innovation, as guided by the law and other policies, focuses on first-generation biodiesel produced from used cooking oil, waste animal, and vegetable oils and non-edible energy crops. For example, the Notice on Issuing the Catalogue of Comprehensive Utilization of Resources issued in 2004 gave tax exemptions for the supply of biodiesel produced from waste animal and vegetable oils. Furthermore, the Opinions on the Implementation of Fiscal and Taxation Support Policies for the Development of Bioenergy and Biochemical issued in 2006 also subsidized the cultivation of non-edible energy crops, such as tung tree and Pistacia chinensis.
The policy instruments complemented the policy objectives. Financial support (15.38%) was the most frequently used policy instrument in the period. Financial support included subsidies, tax exemptions, and loans with low-interest rates for the individuals and private companies that invested in the production and innovation of biodiesel. Farmers’ cultivation of non-edible energy crops was also subsidized. Standard control (8.65%) regulated the technical norms adopted for the production of biodiesel. Sample engineering (6.73%), which was fully funded by the government but operated by private companies, was constructed near the origins of non-edible energy crops to represent the standard processes of biodiesel production. In the first period, as biodiesel only initially emerged in China (Table 5), policies emphasized the increase in the supply of biodiesel. As the policy objectives aimed to encourage technological innovation of biodiesel to fulfill the visions of energy supply continuity and environmental sustainability, the policy instruments of financial support, standard control, and sample engineering were used to encourage private involvement in the standard production of biodiesel. However, as the industry of biodiesel only initially germinated, the policy instruments, shaping the market demands of biodiesel, such as market configuration, were supplementary at the time.

3.1.2. Initial Inclusion within the National Industrial and Energy Plan (Mid-2007 to 2011)

The 11th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Biological Industry in mid-2007 included biodiesel in the long-term national plan for the first time. As a general industrial plan for biotechnology-related industries, biodiesel was a new industry based on biotechnology and supported biopharmaceuticals to contribute to biotechnology innovation of the country. The National Development and Reform Commission was the sole ministry to implement the long-term plan and encouraged first-generation biodiesel by subsidizing the cultivation of non-edible energy crops and process innovation of used cooking oil. Afterward, the 11th Five-Year Plan for the Renewable Energy issued in 2008 further included biodiesel in the long-term national plan of renewable energies, and it supported biodiesel along with wind and solar energies. The National Development and Reform Commission, which implemented the long-term energy plan, recognized biodiesel as part of renewable energy that contributes to energy supply and environmental sustainability. Additionally, the Commission announced the first detailed landmark that, by 2010, the annual production capacity of biodiesel should reach 200,000 tonnes, most of which should be made by non-edible energy crops, including Jatropha curcas, tung tree, and Pistacia chinensis. Next, the policy objectives of the 16 policies launched from mid-2007 to 2011 emphasized energy supply continuity (15.79%) and technology innovation (12.28%). However, as biodiesel was considered part of biotechnology-related industries, the priority of industrial development (12.28%) increased, while environmental sustainability (7.02%) continued to be a critical objective for the development of biodiesel (Table 2). The technological innovation of biodiesel focused on first-generation biodiesel produced from used cooking oil and non-edible energy crops. However, the Chinese government gradually noticed the establishment of the innovation system of biodiesel and encouraged technology transfer from universities to industry rather than solely supported technology innovation within the industry. For example, the 12th Five-Year Plan for Science and Technology Development, launched in 2011 by the Ministry of Science and Technology, established innovation systems of new energy technologies, including biodiesel.
The policy instruments were implemented to fulfill the policy objectives. Financial support (12.28%) was still the most frequently used policy instrument, allocated to universities as research funding and private companies through subsidies and tax exemptions. Since industrial development emerged as a critical policy objective, market configuration (8.77%) was adopted as an essential policy instrument to expand the points of sale for biodiesel. As the involvement of private companies in the production of biodiesel increased, legal liability (7.02%) was strengthened to impose fines for unqualified biodiesel products sold in the market. Furthermore, standard control (5.26%) revealed the minimum quality of biodiesel products, and sample engineering (7.02%) was used to represent the standard processes of biodiesel production. In other words, policy instruments were synthetically operated to establish the overall system of biodiesel innovation and production. As the outputs of biodiesel increased and the market for biodiesel gradually formulated, policy instruments were used to control the supply of biodiesel through financial support, standard control, and sample engineering and to shape market demands by market configuration and legal liability.

3.1.3. The Embeddedness within National-Specific Bioenergy Plan (2012–2019)

Since 2012, the long-term national plan of bioenergy embedded biodiesel. The 12th Five-Year Plan for Bioenergy Development, issued in 2012, was the first national plan targeting the development of bioenergy, and biodiesel was officially recognized as a strategic industry of bioenergy. It was synthetically supported with bioethanol and biogas to serve the national purposes of technology innovation of bioenergy, energy supply, and environmental sustainability. The National Energy Administration under the National Development and Reform Commission was the main institution to implement the plan, and it supported the production of first-generation biodiesel based on used cooking oil and non-edible energy crops and the innovation and commercialization of second-generation algal biodiesel. Later on, the 13th Five-Year Plan for Bioenergy Development issued in 2016, reconfirmed the inclusion of biodiesel in long-term national bioenergy development. The government would encourage the expansion of first-generation biodiesel based on non-edible energy crops, especially woody energy plants such as Jatropha curcas, and concurrently, the process innovation and mass production of algal biodiesel at low costs. The main policy objectives for the development of biodiesel at the time were energy supply continuity (13.24%), technology innovation (11.42%), and environmental sustainability (7.31%). Technology innovation fostered the innovation system of biodiesel, especially the innovation of algal biodiesel, and energy supply continuity emphasized the supply of biodiesel to aviation fuel. For example, in 2016, the Notice on Printing and Distributing the 13th Five-Year Plan for Renewable Energy Development announced the increase in biodiesel usage in transportation, especially aviation. Additionally, the notice revealed that the annual production of biodiesel should achieve 2 million tonnes by 2020.
The priority of policy instruments changed during this period. As the involvement of private companies steadily increased, supervised evaluation (12.79%) emerged as the most frequently used policy instrument regulating the licenses of market entry. Only private companies fulfilling the standards for production and the quality of products were licensed. However, these licenses were evaluated regularly, and the companies that could not maintain the standards could no longer manufacture and sell biodiesel products. Standard control (10.96%) was adopted to both manage the processes of production and the quality of biodiesel products. While private companies needed to follow the technical norms to produce BD 100 biodiesel, since 2019, only B5 biodiesel complying with the mandatory national standard could be sold in the market. Moreover, financial support (8.22%) remains the critical policy instrument to fund universities and research institutes for research of new species of microalgae and non-edible energy crops and allocate subsidies and tax exemptions to private companies participating in the standard production of biodiesel. Sample engineering (7.31%) was used to construct representative factories for the production of second-generation biodiesel based on algae. In conclusion, as the production of and market for first-generation biodiesel were gradually established, policy instruments were synthetically applied to optimize the supply of biodiesel. Supervised evaluation and standard control were used to banish the unqualified products, and financial support and sample engineering fostered the system of biodiesel innovation to move forward to the innovation and production of second-generation biodiesel from algae.

4. Evolution of Policy Networks

The dynamics of the policy networks that implemented biodiesel policies in China evolved with the transitions of policy contents. Figure 4 shows that throughout the three periods, the State Council, which guided the policymaking processes, was the important node, and the National People’s Council, which legitimized legal foundations, was essential in the first and second periods. Table 6 displays institutions and text composition of policies on the development of biodiesel. As shown in Table 6, the National People’s Council only issued two policies, namely the Renewable Energy Law (2005) and the Revision of the Law (2009), weighting 4.44% of the overall policies. However, the Law guided the implementation of subordinate policies on the levels of plans and notices and opinions within the State Council. The State Council burdened the promotion of most of the policies (43 policies weighted 95.56%). The ministries under the State Council in practice actively participated as responders to the National People’s and State Council. The National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Science and Technology, and Ministry of Finance were the three main ministries implementing the policies on the levels of plans and notices and opinions. However, the division of labor between the three ministries changed with time.
During the first period, the National People’s Council legislated the Renewable Energy Law that guided further policymaking processes, and the State Council was the main institution for the implementation of biodiesel policies. Within the State Council, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment, and Ministry of Commerce, which jointly issued the first biodiesel policy, the Technological Policy of Pollution Control for Diesel Vehicles, with the Ministry of Science and Technology in 2003, no longer implemented other biodiesel policies afterward. The National Development and Reform Commission accepted the main responsibility of promoting biodiesel (six of nine policies). Furthermore, the Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Science and Technology also contributed to launching biodiesel policies (two of nine policies each). The coordination between ministries was relatively frequent. The National Development and Reform Commission twice jointly issued policies with the Ministry of Science and Technology and once with the Ministry of Finance.
By revising the Renewable Energy Law in the second period, the National People’s Council continuously provided the legal foundation, and the State Council continued as the main institution for the implementation of biodiesel policies. However, the roles of inferior ministries under the State Council switched. The National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Science and Technology, and Ministry of Finance shared equal responsibilities in the network as the main responders for the promotion of biodiesel policies. Each of the three ministries issued 3 of 16 policies. In practice, compared with the first period, the Ministry of Science and Technology and Ministry of Finance played more active roles, while the National Development and Reform Commission took less responsibility in the implementation of biodiesel policies. Furthermore, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment and Ministry of Commerce were no longer involved in the policy network of biodiesel policies. While the National Development and Reform Commission and Ministry of Science and Technology still jointly issued policies, the Commission did not issue policies with the Ministry of Finance in the second period.
The State Council continued as the main institution to implement biodiesel policies in the third period, and the National People’s Council, which no longer provided a legal foundation for the development of biodiesel, faded from the policy network. Under the State Council, the roles of inferior ministries changed again. The National Development and Reform Commission became the most essential ministry to launch biodiesel policies. The National Energy Administration under the Commission emerged within the network as the critical institution subordinate to the ministry. The Commission itself issued six policies, and the National Energy Administration also launched six policies. While the National Development and Reform Commission in sum promoted 12 of 19 policies, weighting approximately 63% of the overall policies in the period, the Ministry of Science and Technology and Ministry of Finance only implemented one policy each and played minor roles in the biodiesel policy network. Thus, the implementation of biodiesel policies was concentrated in the National Development and Reform Commission, and the coordination between ministries at the same time reduced. The National Development and Reform Commission did not jointly issue any policy with other ministries in the period but allocated the responsibilities of policy implementation to the National Energy Administration.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

This article analyzed the transitions of biodiesel policies in China using the content analysis method. In Section 1, we set up two research questions and portrayed the policy transitions and policy networks in Section 3 and Section 4. Considering the research questions proposed at the beginning of this article, in this section, we further explored the two research questions based on our empirical results and concluded the article with our empirical contributions and suggestions for future research.
The first research question is the following: How did biodiesel policies transit in China regarding policy objectives and policy instruments? The policy objectives of China’s biodiesel policies evolved. Energy supply continuity was the most important policy objective throughout the three periods and was steadily followed by technology innovation and environmental sustainability. Only in the second period did industrial development emerge as one of the most essential policy objectives. Next, the policy objectives shifted with the innovation of technologies. In the first period, as first-generation biodiesel initially emerged, the policies emphasized the increase in the supply of biodiesel. While the production of first-generation biodiesel constantly increased, the policy objectives strengthened the development of the industry and enlarged the market demand to build the system of innovation of biodiesel. Until the third period, with the emergence of second-generation algal biodiesel, policy objectives again focused on biodiesel supply. Nevertheless, the supply of biodiesel in the third period focused on second-generation rather than first-generation biodiesel. Besides, rural development continued as the supplementary policy objective over the three periods. Contrary to Horst’s [25] analysis that rural development is one of the main objectives of biomass energy policies in the United Kingdom, in the experiences of China, rural development received minor priority compared with energy supply continuity and other policy objectives. Moreover, policy instruments changed with the transitions of policy objectives. When the supply of first-generation biodiesel was the main policy purpose in the first period, financial support, standard control, and sample engineering were used to accelerate the production of biodiesel. Once industrial development became one of the critical policy concerns in the second period, market configuration became the essential policy instrument. As policy objectives focused on the supply of second-generation biodiesel in the third period, financial support, standard control, and sample engineering were used again as the critical policy instruments, along with supervised evaluation, to manage the market entry of first-generation biodiesel to upgrade the quality of biodiesel products in the market.
The second research question is the following: How did policy networks of biodiesel evolve through the transitions of policies? The dynamics of policy networks in China changed with the evolution of policy contents. The National People’s Council provided the legal foundations to guide the principal direction for the development of biodiesel, and the State Council continuously significantly influenced the promotion of biodiesel development. Nevertheless, the participation of different ministries under the State Council switched over time. Next, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment and Ministry of Commerce only issued the first biodiesel policy but were no longer involved in policy networks in the later periods. Contrastingly, the National Development and Reform Commission extensively burdened the responsibilities for the implementation of biodiesel policies throughout the three periods. Only in the second period, when market configuration was used as the main policy instrument to fulfill the objective of industrial development, the Commission equally shared responsibilities with the Ministry of Science and Technology and Ministry of Finance. The supply of biodiesel was a significant policy purpose in the first and third periods, and the National Development and Reform Commission continued as the dominant ministry to implement biodiesel policies. Additionally, because the implementation of biodiesel policies was concentrated within the Commission, the burden of the Commission even increased in the third period. The National Energy Administration under the Commission immediately emerged in the network as the main subordinate institution to launch biodiesel policies. Furthermore, the Ministry of Science and Technology and Ministry of Finance, which were once important nodes within the policy networks in the first and second periods, gradually faded in the third period. As long as biodiesel was embedded within the long-term national bioenergy plan, allocating the National Energy Administration to set up overall synthetic policies to support the development of biodiesel, the two ministries reduced coordination with the Commission, and they gradually stepped away from the policy network.
This article is one of the first attempts to analyze the evolution of biodiesel policies in China systematically. We adopted the research method of content analysis to explore the transitions of policy contents and the dynamics of policy networks. Lastly, future research could use more synthetic qualitative or quantitative research methods to improve the analysis of the effectiveness of biodiesel policies, resolve the limitations of the content analysis method, and further explore the underlying contexts driving the policy change of biodiesel in China.

Author Contributions

Funding acquisition, C.-c.C.; Investigation, Y.Z.; Methodology, C.-c.C.; Software, L.L.; Supervision, C.-c.C.; Visualization, Y.W. and Z.W.; Writing—original draft, C.-c.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This project was funded by Wuhan University (600460001).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Analytical framework for policy texts.
Figure 1. Analytical framework for policy texts.
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Figure 2. Distribution of policies by form.
Figure 2. Distribution of policies by form.
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Figure 3. Changes in the number and proportion of relevant policies.
Figure 3. Changes in the number and proportion of relevant policies.
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Figure 4. Policy networks of biodiesel policies.
Figure 4. Policy networks of biodiesel policies.
Processes 08 00948 g004aProcesses 08 00948 g004b
Table 1. Policy samples.
Table 1. Policy samples.
FormDocument NumberName of the Policy DocumentBrief Summary and Qualitative Judgment of PolicyDate
Laws1Renewable Energy Law of the People’s Republic of ChinaThe state encourages the production and use of biological liquid fuels. Petroleum sales enterprises shall incorporate bioliquid fuels that meet national standards into their fuel sales systems in accordance with regulations.February 2005
2Renewable Energy Law of the People’s Republic of China (Revision of 2009)The state encourages the production and use of biological liquid fuels. Petroleum sales enterprises shall incorporate bioliquid fuels that meet national standards into their fuel sales systems in accordance with the State Council’s energy regulations.December 2009
Plans3Technological Policy of Pollution Control for Diesel VehiclesThe state encouraging the development of technologies that use biomass and other raw materials to synthesize diesel.January 2003
4The National special Plan for Technical Equipment Development and Major Industrial Technology DevelopmentFocusing on developing key technologies for industrial-scale biodiesel production and process controlFebruary 2005
5The Guide For Key Areas of Current Priority Development of High-tech IndustrializationDeveloping green biodiesel refining and chemical production technologyJanuary 2007
6The of State Council 11th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Biological IndustrySupporting the production of biodiesel using agricultural and forestry oil plants as raw materials, and the development of new technologies and new processes for the utilization of waste oils such as catering industry oils and fats. Speeding up the formulation of technical standards. Speeding up the process of industrialization.March 2007
7The Application Guidelines for 2007 Special Topics in the Field of 863 Program Resources and Environmental TechnologyDeveloping unconventional pollution control technology for biodiesel alternative fuel vehiclesMarch 2007
8The Plan of International Science and Technology Cooperation Program for Renewable Energy and New EnergyFocusing on supporting the basic science and applied technology research of biodiesel.November 2007
9The 11th Five-Year Plan for the Renewable EnergyDeveloping biodiesel production technology using oil plants as raw materials, and build several pilot projects. By 2010, the annual production capacity of biodiesel based on oil plants (crops) will reach 200,000 tons.March 2008
10The 12th Five-Year plan for Science and Technology DevelopmentFocusing on the development of key technologies and equipment such as biodiesel development and utilization, and strengthening the development and deployment of bioliquid fuel in five directionsJuly 2011
11The 12th Five-Year Plan for the Renewable EnergyPromoting the demonstration of biodiesel industrialization, scientifically guiding and standardizing the development of the biodiesel industry that uses catering and waste animal and vegetable fats as raw materials. Carrying out pilot R&D of 1000-ton biodiesel.August 2012
12Energy Development Strategy Action Plan (2014–2020)Strengthening the research and demonstration of advanced biomass energy technology, focusing on the development of biodiesel, and advancing the development and demonstration of microalgae oil production technology.June 2014
13Biodiesel Industry Development PolicyScientifically formulating a biodiesel industry plan, gradually forming an industrial pattern, clarifying industry access standards, promoting the application of biodiesel, strengthening technological innovation, providing financial and market support, and strengthening supervision and management.November 2014
14Guidance Catalogue for Foreign Investment Industries (Revised in 2017)Removing restrictions on foreign investment access in biodiesel production and other fields.July 2017
Notices and Opinions15Notice on Issuing the Catalogue of Comprehensive Utilization of Resources (Revised in 2003)Using waste animal and vegetable oils to produce biodiesel and special oils.January 2004
16NoticeApplying biodiesel production technologyOctober 2005
17Notice on Issuing the Interim Measures for the Management of Special Funds for Renewable Energy DevelopmentThe focus is to support the development of bioethanol fuel, biodiesel, etc.May 2006
18Notice on Printing and Distributing the Minutes of the Working Conference on Non-Food Biological Liquid FuelsCarrying out industrialization demonstration. Paying close attention to the formulation of national standards for biodiesel and improve the marketing system of bioliquid fuel.July 2006
19Opinions on the implementation of fiscal and taxation support policies for the development of bioenergy and biochemicalSupport the implementation of national fiscal and taxation support policiesSeptember 2006
20The Notice on Printing and Distributing Comprehensive Energy Saving and Emission Reduction Work PlanAccelerating the basic research and preliminary preparation of biodiesel.
21Notice on Interim Measures for the Administration of Non-grain Guided Incentive Funds for Bioenergy and BiochemicalProviding special funds to support biodiesel production expansion demonstration; clarifying fund application standardsMay 2007
22The Notice on Printing and Distributing Medium and Long-Term Development Plan for Renewable EnergyFocusing on the development of biological liquid fuels. By 2010, the annual utilization of biodiesel will reach 200,000 tons. By 2020, the annual utilization will reach 2 million tonsJuly 2007
23Notice on the release of the Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction National Science and Technology Action PlanImplementing the projects of technology research and development such as biodiesel development and applicationAugust 2007
24Notice on comprehensive utilization of resources and VAT policies for other productsFor the self-produced comprehensive utilization of biodiesel, the policy of VAT first collection and then retreat shall be implemented.September 2007
25Notice on Issuing Certain Policies to Promote the Development of the Bio-industryPromote the development of biodiesel and carry out application pilots in an orderly manner. The state gives appropriate support to biodiesel products.December 2008
26Notice on the Exemption of Consumption Tax on the Production of Pure Biodiesel from Waste Animal and Vegetable OilsExemption of consumption tax on pure biodiesel produced using waste animal oil and vegetable oil as raw materialsJune 2009
27Notice on Clarifying the Scope of Application of Consumption Tax Exemption for the Production of Pure Biodiesel from Waste Animal and Vegetable OilsClarifying the applicable scope of exemption of consumption tax for the production of pure biodiesel from waste animal and vegetable oilsDecember 2010
28Notice on Printing and Distributing 12th Five-Year Plan for biotechnology developmentDevelop common key technologies and special equipment for the manufacturing process of non-grain biodiesel products, and establish demonstrations of large-scale production technologies for bioenergy products.June 2011
29Notice on issuing 12th Five-Year Plan for Energy Saving and Environmental Protection Industry DevelopmentEncouraging the production of biodiesel from kitchen waste oilNovember 2011
30Notice on Printing and Distributing the 12th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Biomass EnergyClarifying key tasks such as scale, industrialization, key engineering organizations and technologies, and industrial system construction, providing safeguards and implementation mechanisms, estimating investment, and analyzing social and environmental impacts.June 2012
31Notice on issuing 12th Five-Year Plan for Energy SavingPromote alternative fuels such as alcohol ether fuel and biodiesel based on local conditionsJuly 2012
32Notice of the State Council on Printing and Distributing the Development Plan of Biological IndustryBuilding a bioliquid fuel industry chain. Increasing the research and development of cutting-edge technologies such as oil algae biodiesel and aviation biofuels, and promoting the demonstration of industrialization.August 2012
33The Notice on Printing and Distributing Circular Economy Development Strategy and Immediate Action PlanEncouraging the use of food and kitchen waste biodiesel. Promoting developing R&D technology for the utilization of fast food kitchen waste resources, optimizing the technological process route, and increasing promotion and application.December 2012
34Notice on Clarifying the Purpose of Taxation of Refined Oil on Part of the Import TaxConsumption tax is levied on biodiesel that meets the regulations, and the tax amount is 0.8 yuan/liter.January 2013
35Notice on Further Promoting the Upgrading of Refined Oil Quality and Strengthening Market ManagementStrictly stopping the sale of low-standard biodiesel on timeDecember 2013
36Notice on Printing and Distributing the 13th Five-Year Plan for the Development Biomass EnergyPromoting the application of biodiesel in transportation. To achieve an annual utilization of biodiesel of 2 million tons;February 2016
37Notice on Printing and Distributing the 13th Five-Year Plan for Biological Industry DevelopmentImproving the raw material supply system, orderly developing and utilizing waste oil resources and non-edible oil resources to develop biodiesel. Promoting the research and development of cutting-edge technologies such as cellulose biodiesel and bio aviation fuel, and promoting industrialization demonstration and market application.October 2016
38Notice on Printing and Distributing The 13th Five-Year Plan for Renewable Energy DevelopmentUpgrading and reform biodiesel projects to improve product quality and meeting transportation fuel quality needs. Promoting the industrialization demonstration application of biomass conversion and synthesis of high-grade fuel oil and bio aviation fuel.December 2016
39Notice on Printing and Distributing the 13th Five-Year Plan for Energy Technology InnovationEstablishing a demonstration project of enzyme biodiesel industrialization. Developing key technologies for biojet fuel with complementary oils and sugar-based raw materials.December 2016
40Notice on Printing and Distributing the 13th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Strategic Emerging IndustriesPromoting the industrialization of advanced biological liquid fuels. Improving the raw material supply system and developing biodiesel in an orderly manner. Promoting the development and industrialization of cutting-edge technologies such as oil algae biodiesel and bio aviation fuel.December 2016
41Notice on Printing and Distributing Guidance of Energy Work (2017)Accelerating the introduction of new versions of ethanol gasoline and biodiesel standards for vehicles, and carrying out related upgrades. Achieving full supply of B5 biodiesel.December 2016
42Notice on Printing and Distributing the 13th Five-Year Special-Plan for Biotechnology InnovationFocusing on improving biodiesel manufacturing capacity. Developing key technologies for microalgae preparation of biodiesel, and establishing a demonstration base for biodiesel green process production.February 2017
43Notice on Printing and Distributing Guidance of Energy Work (2018)Increasing the proportion of non-fossil energy in transportation fuels. Improving the refined oil market supervision system and increasing the special spot check of oil qualityApril 2017
44NoticeFull supply of vehicle diesel (including B5 biodiesel) that complies with the sixth stage of the mandatory national standard VIFebruary 2018
45Notice on Printing and Distributing the Energy Standardization Management Measures and Implementation RulesProviding management standards for the development and management of biodiesel projectsDecember 2018
45Notice on Printing and Distributing the Energy Standardization Management Measures and Implementation RulesProviding management standards for the development and management of biodiesel projectsApril 2019
Table 2. Definitions of analysis categories.
Table 2. Definitions of analysis categories.
Sort of CategoriesAnalysis CategoryDefinition
Policy objectivesEnvironmental SustainabilityReduction of GHG emissions, and use biodiesel to replace fossil fuels for environmental protection and climate neutrality [11,24,25].
Energy Supply ContinuityExpectation that energy supply could be achieved through energy diversity, the deployment of renewables as substitutes for gas or oil [25,26].
Industrial DevelopmentGrowth of the industry in the market [25], or creation of new industry that can lead to job creation and find increasing market to serve [24].
Technology InnovationFoster innovation and commercialization of technologies, which are exportable, and the provision of employment [24,25].
Rural DevelopmentStimulate the development of dynamic, competitive and sustainable economies in the countryside and tackle poverty in rural areas [24,25].
Financial SupportThe support for relevant market players to generate desired economic behaviors, including fixed feed-in tariffs, investment subsidies, tax emptions for production costs, and fees or grants for technology innovation [32].
Policy InstrumentsStandard ControlThe provision of the regulatory environment, which forced market players by laws or policies to encourage the set of behaviors defined acceptable for the state authority. These regulations include technology standards, safety standards and production stops, as well as the technology bands for long-term contracts at a fixed price [27].
Supervised EvaluationEvaluation for the permits of market players who have been licensed and active in the market, as well as the review for the effects and effectiveness of policy instruments [24].
Legal LiabilityPunishment for deviant behaviors with negative sanctions, such as a fine, restrictions of trade, and prohibitions [28].
Market ConfigurationBuilt up a market segment for renewable energies through the establishment of new marketing channels, such as the expansion of footholds [32].
Sample
Engineering
Encouragement for the construction of a significant number of new renewable energy power plants or factories through the direct investments of the government [32].
InfrastructureThe government establishes R&D labs or other projects, which improve electrical testing and the certification system [30].
Table 3. Codes and Frequency of each analysis category.
Table 3. Codes and Frequency of each analysis category.
NumberCodeAnalysis Category2003–20072008–20112012–2019Total
FrequencyPercentageFrequencyPercentageFrequencyPercentageFrequencyPercentage
Policy Objectives
1AEnvironmental Sustainability1211.54%47.02%167.31%328.42%
2BEnergy Supply Continuity1114.43%615.79%2413.24%4113.95%
3CIndustrial Development65.77%712.28%135.94%266.84%
4DTechnology Innovation1413.46%712.28%2511.42%4612.11%
5ERural Development87.69%47.02%125.48%246.32%
Policy Instruments
6FFinancial Support1615.38%712.28%188.22%4110.79%
7GStandard Control98.65%35.26%2410.96%369.47%
8HSupervised Evaluation54.81%23.51%2812.79%359.21%
9ILegal Liability32.88%47.02%104.57%174.47%
10JMarket Configuration65.77%58.77%146.39%256.58%
11KSample
Engineering
76.73%47.02%167.31%277.11%
12LInfrastructure32.88%11.75%146.39%184.74%
Total104100%57100%219100%380100%
Table 4. Embeddedness of analysis codes in policy documents.
Table 4. Embeddedness of analysis codes in policy documents.
Document NumberName of the Policy TextInstitutions for Policy ImplementationDateCode Number
1Renewable Energy Law of the People’s Republic of ChinaNational People’s CouncilFebruary 20051-1-1ABB; 1-4-16BGJ; 1-4-18E; 1-6-24F; 1-7I
2Renewable Energy Law of the People’s Republic of China (Revised in 2009)NPC of the People’s RepublicDecember 20092-1-1ABB; 2-4-16BGJ; 2-4-18E; 2-6-24F; 2-7I
3Technological Policy of Pollution Control for Diesel VehiclesState Environmental Protection AdministrationJanuary 20033-3-1A; 3-3-4BD
4The National special Plan for Technical Equipment Development and Major Industrial Technology DevelopmentNational Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and TechnologyFebruary 20054-2-2D; 4-1-2CD; 4-3-8GI; 4-3-6F
5The Guide For Key Areas of Current Priority Development of High-tech IndustrializationNational Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and TechnologyJanuary 20075-72CD
6The 11th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Biological IndustryNational Development and Reform CommissionMarch 20076-3-3BCDEGK; 6-1-2A; 6-4-2DFLI; 6-4-4FJ; 6-4-5F; 6-4-6J
7The Application Guidelines for 2007 Special Topics in the Field of 863 Program Resources and Environmental TechnologyMinistry of Science and TechnologyMarch 20077-3-1A; 7-3-2DF
8The Plan of International Science and Technology Cooperation Program for Renewable Energy and New EnergyMinistry of Science and Technology; National Development and Reform CommissionNovember 20078-1A; 8-15-2D; 8-16-2K; 8-16-3G; 8-17-2F
9The 11th Five-Year Plan for the Renewable EnergyNational Development and Reform CommissionMarch 20089-1-3B; 9-3-2ABDEC; 9-3-2DJBK; 9-3-2E; 9-5-1I; 9-5-2F; 9-5-3J; 9-5-4CD
10The 12th Five-Year plan for Science and Technology DevelopmentMinistry of Science and TechnologyJuly 201110-4-5DBCK; 10-10-2C; 10-11-1I; 10-11-3F; 10-9-12H
11The 12th Five-Year Plan for the Renewable EnergyNational Energy AdministrationAugust 201211-2-1AB; 11-3-4E; 11-3-4BLCKD; 11-3-5E; 11-3-8E; 11-4ABC; 11-4-1H; 11-4-1F; 11-4-1G; 11-4-2H; 11-5-2E
12Energy Development Strategy Action Plan (2014-2020)State CouncilJune 201412-2-1DKB; 12-1-2AB; 12-2-2E; 12-2-3B; 12-2-4D; 12-3-1BJIH; 12-3-2F
13Biodiesel Industry Development PolicyNational Energy AdministrationNovember 201413-1-1JAC; 13-1-2LID; 13-1-3G; 13-1-4JFGH; 13-2-9H; 13-2B; 13-3-10L; 13-3-11J; 13-3-12LC; 13-3-13LD; 13-5H; 13-5-19G; 13-6-24HI; 13-7-28GJ; 13-8DG; 13-9A; 13-10F; 13-11H
14Guidance Catalogue for Foreign Investment Industries (Revised in 2017)National Development and Reform CommissionJuly 201714-1H
15Notice on Issuing the Catalogue of Comprehensive Utilization of Resources (Revised in 2003)National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Finance; State Taxation AdministrationJanuary 200415-1AF; 15-46B
16NoticeNational Development and Reform CommissionOctober 200516-41DG
17Notice on Issuing the Interim Measures for the Management of Special Funds for Renewable Energy DevelopmentNational Development and Reform CommissionMay 200617-2-6FB; 17-3-2E; 17-5H; 17-1-1H
18Notice on Printing and Distributing the Minutes of the Working Conference on Non-Food Biological Liquid FuelsNational Development and Reform CommissionJuly 200618-1AB; 18-2EH; 18-3GK; 18-4J; 18-5F
19Opinions on the implementation of fiscal and taxation support policies for the development of bioenergy and biochemicalMinistry of FinanceSeptember 200619-1-1ABL; 19-2F; 19-3-5E; 19-3-8BGKJ; 19-3-9F; 19-3-10H; 19-3-11GH; 19-4-13E
20The Notice on Printing and Distributing Comprehensive Energy Saving and Emission Reduction Work PlanState CouncilMay 200720-1A; 20-2-6ACDK
21Notice on Interim Measures for the Administration of Non-grain Guided Incentive Funds for Bioenergy and BiochemicalMinistry of FinanceJuly 200721-2CFBK; 21-3GDA; 21-3-2E
22The Notice on Printing and Distributing Medium and Long-Term Development Plan for Renewable EnergyNational Development and Reform CommissionAugust 200722-6-2B; 22-6-2LDJ; 22-5CA; 22-7-3E; 22-8-2B; 22-8-3B; 22-8-5F; 22-8-4F; 22-8-6D
23Notice on the release of the Energy Conservation and Emission Reduction National Science and Technology Action PlanMinistry of Science and TechnologySeptember 200723-2A; 23-3-4DBK; 23-4-2F
24Notice on comprehensive utilization of resources and VAT policies for other productsMinistry of Finance; State Taxation AdministrationDecember 200824-5FAB
25Notice on Issuing Certain Policies to Promote the Development of the Bio-industryState CouncilJune 200925-2-7BJ; 25-6-20FKC; 25-8J; 25-1CD
26Notice on the Exemption of Consumption Tax on the Production of Pure Biodiesel from Waste Animal and Vegetable OilsMinistry of Finance; State Taxation AdministrationDecember 201026-1FG
27Notice on Clarifying the Scope of Application of Consumption Tax Exemption for the Production of Pure Biodiesel from Waste Animal and Vegetable OilsMinistry of FinanceJune 201127-1G
28Notice on Printing and Distributing 12th Five-Year Plan for biotechnology developmentMinistry of Science and TechnologyNovember 201128-4-3DK; 28-5-2FH; 28-5-3DL; 28-5-4I; 28-1AB; 28-3C
29Notice on issuing 12th Five-Year Plan for Energy Saving and Environmental Protection Industry DevelopmentState CouncilJune 201229-3-2B; 29-5-2D; 29-2-3C; 29-2-3D; 29-2-3H; 29-1A
30Notice on Printing and Distributing the 12th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Biomass EnergyNational Energy AdministrationJuly 201230-2A; 30-3-1B; 30-3-1CKB; 30-3-3EL; 30-3-4DL; 30-3-4G; 30-3-4D; 30-3-2J; 30-4-1H; 30-4-1B; 30-4-1EF; 30-4-4G; 30-4-1JK; 30-4-1L; 30-4IH; 30-5-2E
31Notice on issuing 12th Five-Year Plan for Energy SavingState CouncilAugust 201231-4-1B; 31-5-1A; 31-5-2H; 31-5-4I; 31-5-5F; 31-5-6F; 31-5-7J; 31-5-8D; 31-5-9I
32Notice of the State Council on Printing and Distributing the Development Plan of Biological IndustryState CouncilDecember 201232-3-5BE; 32-3-5BDKH; 32-4-1HG; 32-4-2JK; 32-4-3F
33The Notice on Printing and Distributing Circular Economy Development Strategy and Immediate Action PlanState CouncilJanuary 201333-6-6BD; 33-6A; 33-8-1F; 33-8-2IG; 33-8-3H; 33-8-4DK
34Notice on Clarifying the Purpose of Taxation of Refined Oil on Part of the Import TaxMinistry of FinanceDecember 201334-2F
35Notice on Further Promoting the Upgrading of Refined Oil Quality and Strengthening Market ManagementNational Development and Reform CommissionFebruary 201635-1AJ; 35-2H; 35-3HG
36Notice on Printing and Distributing the 13th Five-Year Plan for the Development Biomass EnergyNational Energy AdministrationOctober 201636-3-4BCGKD; 36-2-3B; 36-2-1A; 36-4-1BEF; 36-4-2J; 36-4-3EK; 36-4-5HG
37Notice on Printing and Distributing the 13th Five-Year Plan for Biological Industry DevelopmentNational Development and Reform CommissionDecember 201637-3-5ABC; 37-3-5DKLB; 37-4-5A; 37-5-3DGL; 37-6-3J; 37-7-1F
38Notice on Printing and Distributing The 13th Five-Year Plan for Renewable Energy DevelopmentNational Development and Reform CommissionDecember 201638-4-4CDKB; 38-4-4AF; 38-8-3G; 38-5L; 38-6-2K; 38-7-1H; 38-7-2D; 38-7-3H; 38-7-3D; 38-7-5G; 38-7-6L
39Notice on Printing and Distributing the 13th Five-Year Plan for Energy Technology InnovationNational Energy AdministrationDecember 201639-3-4D; 39-3-1BDK; 39-4-1HGD; 39-4-2KFC; 39-4-3L
40Notice on Printing and Distributing the 13th Five-Year Plan for the Development of Strategic Emerging IndustriesState CouncilDecember 201640-4-6BDCKL; 40-4HG; 40-10-5F; 40-5A; 40-5-2BC
41Notice on Printing and Distributing Guidance of Energy Work (2017)National Energy AdministrationFebruary 201741-2-1JGH; 41-2-6G; 41-2-2B; 41-2-7I
42Notice on Printing and Distributing the 13th Five-Year Special-Plan for Biotechnology InnovationMinistry of Science and TechnologyApril 201742-4-2ABDKB; 42-5-3FHC; 42-5-5GI
43Notice on Printing and Distributing Guidance of Energy Work (2018)National Energy AdministrationFebruary 201843-2-2BH
44NoticeNational Development and Reform Commission; National Energy Administration; December 201844-1JG; 44-2G; 44-4EH
45Notice on Printing and Distributing the Energy Standardization Management Measures and Implementation RulesNational Energy AdministrationApril 201945-1-2G; 45-3-11I; 45-4-18H; 45-4-20F; 45-5-23F
Table 5. Annual production of biodiesel in China.
Table 5. Annual production of biodiesel in China.
Calendar YearProduction (Million Liters)
2006273
2007352
2008534
2009591
2010568
2011738
2012927
20131079
20141133
2015787
2016909
20171043
2018834
2019900
Sources: United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)’s Gain Reports [33,34].
Table 6. Institutional and text composition of policies on the development of biodiesel.
Table 6. Institutional and text composition of policies on the development of biodiesel.
Institutional CompositionNational Peoples’ CouncilState CouncilRelevant Ministries of the State CouncilTotal
National Development and Reform CommissionMinistry of FinanceMinistry of Science and TechnologyMinistry of Ecology and EnvironmentNational Energy Administration
Quantity Percentage/%2814661845
4.44%20.00%31.11%13.33%13.33%2.22%15.56%100.00%
Text CompositionLawsPlansNotices and OpinionsTotal
Quantity Percentage/%2123145
4.44%26.67%68.89%100.00%

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Chung, C.-c.; Zhang, Y.; Liu, L.; Wang, Y.; Wei, Z. The Evolution of Biodiesel Policies in China over the Period 2000–2019. Processes 2020, 8, 948. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080948

AMA Style

Chung C-c, Zhang Y, Liu L, Wang Y, Wei Z. The Evolution of Biodiesel Policies in China over the Period 2000–2019. Processes. 2020; 8(8):948. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080948

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chung, Chao-chen, Yapeng Zhang, Lina Liu, Yixuan Wang, and Ziji Wei. 2020. "The Evolution of Biodiesel Policies in China over the Period 2000–2019" Processes 8, no. 8: 948. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr8080948

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