Abstract
Student academic deficits and problem behaviors have long been demonstrated to be closely related. What is not as clear is the degree to which teacher behaviors are predictive of both academic and behavioral outcomes. Using direct observations of teachers in over 1500 unique elementary and secondary classroom instructional settings, rates of identified evidence-based teacher instructional behaviors were used as independent variables to predict both academic and disciplinary outcomes for students at the school level. Results showed that a school’s mean rate of teacher provided opportunities for student response and positive feedback during instruction were significant predictors for lower school-wide suspensions and higher percentage of students scoring in the proficient and distinguished level on state academic assessments. Implications of these relationships as a means of preventing student failure in school are discussed along with recommendations for future study.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force. (2008). Are zero tolerance policies effective in the schools? An evidentiary review and recommendations. American Psychologist, 63, 852–862.
Balfanz, R. Byrnes, V., & Hornig Fox, J. (2015). Sent home and put off track: The antecedents, disproportionalities, and consequences of being suspended in the 9th grade. In D. L. Losen (Ed.). Closing the School Discipline Gap. (pp. 17–30). New York: Columbia Teachers College.
Bradley, C. L., & Renzulli, L. A. (2011). The complexity of non-completion: Being pushed or pulled to drop out of high school. Social Forces, 90, 521–545.
Brooks, K., Schiraldi, V., & Ziedenberg, J. (2000). School house hype: Two years later. Washington, DC: Justice Policy Institute.
Brophy, J. (2006). History of research on classroom management. In C. M. Evertson & C. S.Weinstein (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues (pp. 17–43). Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Brophy J., & Good, T. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook on research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 328-375). New York: Macmillan.
Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Morrison, F. J., & Jewkes, A. M. (2008). Effects of classroom organization on letter-word reading in first grade. Journal of School Psychology, 46, 173–192.
Champely, S. (2018). pwr: Basic functions for power analysis. R package version 1.2–2. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=pwr
Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. London: Routledge.
Cook, C. R., Grady, E. A., Long, A. C., Renshaw, T., Codding, R. S., Fiat, A., & Larson, M. (2017). Evaluating the impact of increasing general education teachers' ratio of positive-to-negative interactions on students' classroom behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 19(2), 67–77.
Cornell, D. G. (2017). School violence: Fears and Facts. Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Dishion, T. J., & Patterson, G. R. (2016). The development and ecology of antisocial behavior: Linking etiology, prevention, and treatment. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology: Maladaptation and psychopathology (Vol. 3, 3rd ed., pp. 647–678). New York: Wiley.
Dunlap, G., & Fox, L. (2011). Function-based interventions for children with challenging behavior. Journal of Early Intervention, 33(4), 333–343.
Engelman, S. (2007). Student-program alignment and teaching to mastery. Journal of Direct Instruction, 7(1), 45–66.
Everett, C. (2018). Teaching secondary social studies" instructional strategies for middle and high school social studies: Methods, assessment, and classroom management". Global Education Review, 5(1), 126–128.
Everitt, B. S., Landau, S., Leese, M., & Stahl, D. (2011). Cluster analysis (5th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Fabelo, T., Thompson, M. D., Plotkin, M. Carmichael, D., Marchbanks, M. P. III, & Booth E. A. (2011). Breaking schools' rules: A statewide study of how school discipline relates to students' success and juvenile justice involvement. NCouncil of State Governments Justice Center and Texas A&M University Public Policy Research Institute. Retrieved from http://www2.mysanantonio.com/PDFs?Breaking_Schools_Rules_embargo_final_report.pdf
Finn, J. D., & Servoss, T. J. (2015). Security measures and discipline in American high schools. In D. L. Losen (Ed.). Closing the School Discipline Gap. (pp. 44–56). New York: Columbia Teachers College.
Fleming, C. B., Harachi, T. W., Cortes, R. C., Abbott, R. D., & Catalano, R. F. (2004). Level and change in reading scores and attention problems during elementary school as predictors of problem behavior in middle school. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 12(3), 130–144.
Flower, A., McKenna, J. W., & Haring, C. D. (2017). Behavior and classroom management: Are teacher preparation programs really preparing our teachers? Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 61(2), 163–169.
Gage, N. A., Scott, T. M., Hirn, R., & MacSuga-Gage, A. S. (2018). The relationship between teachers’ implementation of classroom management practices and student behavior in elementary school. Behavioral Disorders, 43, 302–315. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742917714809.
Gage, N. A., Whitford, D. K., Katsiyannis, A., Adams, S., & Jasper, A. (2019). National analysis of the disciplinary exclusion of black students with and without disabilities. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28, 1754–1764. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01407-7.
Gelman, A., & Hill, J. (2007). Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Girvan, E. J., Gion, C., McIntosh, K., & Smolkowski, K. (2017). The relative contribution of subjective office referrals to racial disproportionality in school discipline. School Psychology Quarterly, 32(3), 392.
Gregory, A., Hafen, C. A., Ruzek, E., Mikami, A. Y., Allen, J. P., & Pianta, R. C. (2016). Closing the racial discipline gap in classrooms by changing teacher practice. School Psychology Review, 45(2), 171–191.
Hattie, J. A. C. (2009). Visible Learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London: Routledge.
Haydon, T., & Scott, T. M. (2008). Using common sense in common settings: Utilizing active supervision and pre-correction in the morning gym. Intervention in School and Clinic, 43, 283–290.
Haynes, S. N., & Horn, W. F. (1982). Reactivity in behavioral observation: A review. Behavioral Assessment, 4(4), 369–385.
Hirn, R. G., & Scott, T. M. (2014). Descriptive analysis of teacher instructional practices and student engagement among adolescents with and without challenging behavior. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(4), 585–607.
Hyman, I. A., & Perone, D. C. (1998). The other side of school violence: Educator policies and practices that may contribute to student misbehavior. Journal of School Psychology, 36, 7–27.
Jacobsen, W. C., Pace, G. T., & Ramirez, N. (2016). Even at a young age: Exclusionary school discipline and children’s physically aggressive behaviors. Population Association of America. Working Papers 16-04-ff, Princeton University.
Kern, L., & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 44(1), 65–75.
Lane, K. L., O'Shaughnessy, T. E., Lambros, K. M., Gresham, F. M., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. E. (2001). The efficacy of phonological awareness training with first grade students who have behavior problems and reading difficulties. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 9, 219–231.
Levy, S., & Vaughn, S. (2002). An observational study of teachers’ reading instruction of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 27, 215–325.
Losen, D. & Martin, K. (2018). The Unequal Impact of Suspension on the Opportunity to Learn in CA. Retreived May 8, 2020 (http://www.schooldisciplinedata.org/ccrr/docs/Suspension_Impact_California_2018_R6.pdf).
Losen, D. J., & Martinez, T. E. (2013). Out of School and Off Track: The Overuse of Suspensions in American Middle and High Schools. K-12 Racial Disparities in School Discipline. Retrieved February 25, 2016 (http://escholarship.org/uc/item/8pd0s08z).
MacSuga-Gage, A. S., & Simonsen, B. (2015). Examining the effects of teacher-directed opportunities to respond on student outcomes: A systematic review of the literature. Education and Treatment of Children, 38, 211–244.
Mangiafico, S.S. 2016. Summary and analysis of extension program evaluation in R, version 1.18.1. retrieved from rcompanion.org/documents/RHandbookProgramEvaluation.pdf
Marchbanks, M. P. III, Blake, J. J., Booth, E. A., Carmichael, D. Seibert, A. L., & Fabelo, T. (2015). The economic effects of exclusionary discipline on grade retention and high school dropout. In D. L. Losen (Ed.). Closing the School Discipline Gap. (pp. 59–74). New York: Columbia Teachers College.
Martella, R. C., & Marchand-Martella, N. E. (2015). Improving classroom behavior through effective instruction: An illustrative program example using SRA FLEX literacy. Education and Treatment of Children, 38(2), 241–271.
Martinez, A., McMahon, S. D., & Treger, S. (2016). Individual-and school-level predictors of student office disciplinary referrals. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 24(1), 30–41.
McFarland, J., Hussar, B., Wang, X., Zhang, J., Wang, K., Rathbun, A., Barmer, A., Forrest Cataldi, E., & Bullock Mann, F. (2018). The condition of education 2018 (NCES 2018–144). U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2018144
McGrady, P. B., & Reynolds, J. R. (2013). Racial mismatch in the classroom: Beyond black-white differences. Sociology of Education, 86(1), 3–17.
McIntosh, K., Chard, D., Boland, J., & Horner, R. H. (2006). A demonstration of combined efforts in school-wide academic and behavioral systems and incidence of Reading and behavior challenges in early elementary grades. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8, 146–154.
McLeskey, J., Maheady, L., Billingsley, B., Brownell, M., & Lewis, T. (Eds.). (2018). High leverage practices for inclusive classrooms. London: Routledge.
Morrison, G. M., Anthony, S., Storino, M., & Dillon, C. (2001). An examination of the disciplinary histories and the individual and educational characteristics fo students who participate in and in-school suspension program. Education and Treatment of Children, 24(3), 276–293.
Nelson, J. R., & Roberts, M. L. (2000). Ongoing reciprocal teacher-student interactions involving disruptive behaviors in general education classrooms. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 8(1), 27–37.
Noltemeyer, A. L., Ward, R. M., & Mcloughlin, C. (2015). Relationship between school suspension and student outcomes: A meta-analysis. School Psychology Review, 44(2), 224–240.
Partin, T. C., Robertson, R. E., Maggin, D. M., Oliver, R. M., & Wehby, J. (2010). Using teacher praise and opportunities to respond to promote appropriate student behavior. Preventing School Failure, 54(3), 172–178.
Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B. K., & Allen, J. P. (2012). Teacher-student relationships and engagement: Conceptualizing, measuring, and improving the capacity of classroom interactions. In Handbook of research on student engagement (pp. 365–386). New York: Springer.
Pigott, R. L., & Cowen, E. L. (2000). Teacher race, child race, racial congruence, and teacher ratings of children's school adjustment. Journal of School Psychology, 38(2), 177–195.
R-Core Team (2013). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing URL: http://www.R-project.org/.
Rowley, G. (1978). The relationship of reliability in classroom research to the amount of observation: An extension of the spearman-Brown formula. Journal of Educational Measurement, 15(3), 165–180.
Rumberger, R. W. (2011). Dropping out: Why students drop out of high school and what can be done about it. Cambridge: Harvard University press.
Scott, T. M., (2019). An evaluation of disciplinary suspension disproportionality in Jefferson County Public Schools. University of Louisville Center for Instructional and Behavioral Research in Schools.
Scott, T. M., Hirn, R. G., & Cooper, J. (2017). Classroom Success: Keys to Success in Classroom Instruction. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.
Scott, T. M., Gage, N., Hirn, R., & Han, H. (2019). Teacher and student race as a predictor for negative feedback during instruction. School Psychology Quarterly, 34(1), 22.
Shollenberger, T. L. (2015). Racial disparities in school suspension and subsequent outcomes. In D. L. Losen (Ed.). Closing the School Discipline Gap. (pp. 31–43). New York: Columbia Teachers College.
Skiba, R. J., Peterson, R. L., & Williams, T. (1997). Office referrals and suspensions: Disciplinary intervention in middle schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 20, 295–315.
Skiba, R. J., Chung, C., Trachok, M., Baker, T., Sheya, A., & Hughes, R. (2015). Where Should We Intervene: Contributions of behavior, student, and school characteristics to out-of-school suspension. In D. L. Losen (Ed.). Closing the School Discipline Gap. (pp. 132–146). New York: Columbia Teachers College.
Stichter, J. P., Lewis, T. J., Whitaker, T. A., Richter, M., Johnson, N. W., & Trussell. (2009). Assessing teacher use of opportunities to respond and effective classroom management strategies. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 11(2), 68–81.
Stockard, J., Wood, T. W., Coughlin, C., & Khoury, C. R. (2018). The effectiveness of direct instruction curricula: A meta-analysis of a half century of research. Review of Educational Research, 88(4), 479–507.
Tapp, J., Wehby, J., & Ellis, D. (1992). The Multiple Option Observation System for Experimental Studies (MOOSES). Gleenwood Springs: Tapp.
Yoshikawa, H., Aber, J. L., & Beardslee, W. R. (2012). The effects of poverty on the mental, emotional, and behavioral health of children and youth: Implications for prevention. American Psychologist, 67(4), 272–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028015.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
The procedures described herein were conducted under an approved IRB protocol with the University of Louisville.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Scott, T.M., Gage, N. An Examination of the Association Between Teacher’s Instructional Practices and School-Wide Disciplinary and Academic Outcomes. Educ. Treat. Child. 43, 223–235 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-020-00024-0
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-020-00024-0