Skip to content
Licensed Unlicensed Requires Authentication Published by De Gruyter January 11, 2019

Fouling and fouling mitigation of calcium compounds on heat exchangers by novel colloids and surface modifications

  • Salim N. Kazi

    Salim N. Kazi has been an academic and faculty member of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya for 9 years. He has 18 years of experience in engineering service in petrochemical industries and as a consultant. He holds a BSc in Mechanical Engineering, a MSc in Engineering, a Master’s of Engineering, and a PhD in heat transfer and fouling mitigation. He has completed the supervision of 19 PhD and 12 Master’s theses and has published 199 technical papers.

    EMAIL logo

Abstract

Fouling is the accumulation of unwanted materials on surfaces that causes detrimental effects on its function. The accumulated materials can be composed of living organisms (biofouling), nonliving substances (inorganic and/or organic), or a combination of both of them. Mineral fouling occurs when a process uses cooling water supersaturated with mineral salt crystals (i.e. hard water). Precipitation ensues on heat transfer surfaces whenever the inversely soluble dissolved calcium salt ions are exposed to high temperature. Mineral salts, dirt, waxes, biofilms, whey proteins, etc. are common deposits on the heat exchanger surfaces, and they create thermal resistance and increase pressure drop and maintenance costs of plants. Fouling of dissolved salts and its mitigation have been studied in detail by varying process parameters, surface materials, coatings on surfaces, additives, etc. by many researchers. In the present stage, researchers have considered polymeric additives, environmental friendly nanoparticles, natural fibers, and thermal conductive coatings (metallic and polymeric) in the study of mitigation of fouling. A better understanding of the problem and the mechanisms that lead to the accumulation of deposits on surfaces will provide opportunities to reduce or even eliminate the problem in certain situations. The present review study has focused on fouling phenomena, environment of fouling, heat exchanger fouling in design, and mitigation of fouling. The findings could support in developing the improved heat exchanger material surfaces, retain efficiency of the heat exchangers, and prolong their continuous operation.

Funding source: Universiti Malaya

Award Identifier / Grant number: RP045C-17AET

Funding statement: The author gratefully acknowledges the High Impact Research Grant UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/45 and UMRG grant RP045C-17AET, University of Malaya, Funder Id: 10.13039/501100004386, Malaysia for the support to conduct this research work.

About the author

Salim N. Kazi

Salim N. Kazi has been an academic and faculty member of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya for 9 years. He has 18 years of experience in engineering service in petrochemical industries and as a consultant. He holds a BSc in Mechanical Engineering, a MSc in Engineering, a Master’s of Engineering, and a PhD in heat transfer and fouling mitigation. He has completed the supervision of 19 PhD and 12 Master’s theses and has published 199 technical papers.

Nomenclature

A

Heat transfer area

m2

Ai

Inner surface area of the heat transfer pipe

m2

AO

Outer surface area of the heat transfer pipe

m2

Acr

Cross sectional area of the pipe

m2

Afouled

Heat transfer surface area after fouling

m2

A

Heat transfer surface area at the clean stage (Before fouling)

m2

a8a10

Proportionality constant

Cb

Reactant concentration in the bulk fluid

mol/m3

Cs

Reactant concentration in the fluid adjacent to the heat transfer surface

mol/m3

cF

Mean solution concentration

mol/m3

cSa

Saturation concentration

mol/m3

cp

Specific heat capacity

J/mol K

c

Dirt concentration

kg/m3

d

Pipe diameter

m

dc

Diameter of the clean pipe

m

df

Diameter of the fouled pipe

m

dO

Outer pipe diameter

m

di

Inner pipe diameter

m

Ea

Activation energy

ΔH

Head loss

m H2O

hc

Heat transfer coefficient

W/m2 K

hD

Convective mass transfer coefficient

m/s

hi

Heat transfer coefficient at the pipe inner surface

W/m2 K

hO

Heat transfer coefficient at the pipe outer surface

W/m2 K

k

Thermal conductivity

W/m K

kc

Thermal conductivity of the clean surface material

W/m K

kf

Thermal conductivity of the fouled surface (material and deposition)

W/m K

KR

Reaction rate constant

k1

Deposition constant

k2

Removal constant

L

Length

m

m˙

Mass flux

kg/m2s

m˙d

Increase of solids mass in the fouling film (deposition rate)

kg/m2s

m˙r

Decrease of solids from the fouling film (removal rate)

kg/m2s

mf

Net solids deposited in the fouling film per unit area (net deposition rate)

kg/m2s

n

Order of the crystal-building reaction

P

Pressure

kPa

P

Perimeter

m

Pd

Deposition probability factor related to velocity and “stickiness” or adhesion characteristics of the deposit

ΔP

Pressure drop

kPa/m

ΔPf

Pressure drop inside pipe of a fouled heat exchanger

kPa/m

ΔPc

Pressure drop inside pipe of a clean heat exchanger

kPa/m

Q˙

Heat flow

W

q˙

Heat flux

W/m2

R

Ratio of the radius of inner and outer pipes of annulus

Ra

The arithmetic mean of the departure of the measured roughness

μm

Rg

Universal gas constant

J/mol K

Rf

Fouling resistance

m2 K/kW

Rfi

Thermal resistance at the inner surface

m2 K/kW

Rfo

Thermal resistance at the outer surface

m2 K/kW

Rf*

Asymptotic value of the fouling resistance

m2 K/kW

r

Radius

m

rH

Hydraulic radius

m

T

Temperature

°C

Tf

Temperature at the surface of the fouling film

°C

Ts

Absolute surface temperature

°C

ΔT

Temperature difference

K or °C

ΔTf

Temperature difference between the pipe surface and the bulk fluid

K or °C

t

Time

s

tc

Time constant of the fouling resistance exponential curve

s

tind

Induction time

s

tf

Thickness of the deposited layer

m

U

Overall heat transfer coefficient

W/m2 K

Uf

Overall heat transfer coefficient of the fouled surface

W/m2 K

Ucl

Overall heat transfer coefficient of the clean surface

W/m2 K

u

Velocity of the fluid

m/s

w

Constant weight flow of fluid

kg/s

umf

Fluid velocity in the fouled pipe

m/s

umc

Fluid velocity in the clean pipe

m/s

Ws

Weight of the deposited scale

kg

Wf

Weight of the fouled coupon

kg

WI

Weight of the clean coupon

kg

x

Distance in the x direction

m

xf

Fouling film thickness

m

y

Distance in the y direction

m

BK

Bleached Kraft pine wood pulp fibers

TDS

Total dissolved solids

EDTA

Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

DTPA

Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid

PAA

Polyacrylic acid

PMAA

Polymethacrylic acids

PPy

Polypyrrole

CMC

Carboxyl methyl cellulose

CATIN

Cationic inulin

MWCNT

Multiwalled carbon nanotube

MWCNT-EDTA

Multiwalled carbon nanotube EDTA treated

MWCNT-DTPA

Multiwalled carbon nanotube DTPA treated

SEM

Scanning electron microscope

Greek letters
Ω

Water characterization factor

ε

Height of roughness

m

ε/d

Roughness ratio

f

Fanning friction factor

ff

Fanning friction factor of the fouled surface

fc

Fanning friction factor of the clean surface

ψ

Strength or toughness of the deposit layer

μ

Dynamic viscosity

kg/ms

λf

Thermal conductivity of the deposits

W/mK

ρ

Density

kg/m3

ρf

Density of the deposits

kg/m3

θ

Time constant

ϕd

Rate of deposition

kg/m2 s

ϕr

Rate of removal

kg/m2 s

τ

Shear stress

N/m2

τf

Shear stress exerted by the liquid flow on the fouling film

N/m2

ν

Kinematic viscosity

m2/s

Dimensionless numbers
Nusselt Number

Nu=hc·dk

Prandtl Number

Pr=cp·μk

Reynolds Number

Re=ρudμ

References

Abdel-Aal N, Sawada K. Inhibition of adhesion and precipitation of CaCO3 by aminopolyphosphonate. J Cryst Growth 2003; 256: 188–200.10.1016/S0022-0248(03)01354-XSearch in Google Scholar

Akın B, Öner M, Bayram Y, Demadis KD. Effects of carboxylate-modified,“green” inulin biopolymers on the crystal growth of calcium oxalate. Cryst Growth Des 2008; 8: 1997–2005.10.1021/cg800092qSearch in Google Scholar

Akyol E, Oner M, Barouda E, Demadis KD. Systematic structural determinants of the effects of tetraphosphonates on gypsum crystallization. Cryst Growth Des 2009; 9: 5145–5154.10.1021/cg9005423Search in Google Scholar

Al-Rehaili AM. Comparative chemical clarification for silica removal from RO groundwater feed. Desalination 2003; 159: 21–31.10.1016/S0011-9164(03)90042-7Search in Google Scholar

Altay E, Shahwan T, Tanoğlu M. Morphosynthesis of CaCO3 at different reaction temperatures and the effects of PDDA, CTAB, and EDTA on the particle morphology and polymorph stability. Powder Technol 2007; 178: 194–202.10.1016/j.powtec.2007.05.004Search in Google Scholar

Amjad Z. Calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum) scale formation on heat exchanger surfaces: the influence of scale inhibitors. J Colloid Interface Sci 1988; 123: 523–536.10.1016/0021-9797(88)90274-3Search in Google Scholar

Amjad Z, Demadis KD. Mineral scales and deposits: scientific and technological approaches. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 2015.Search in Google Scholar

Amjad Z, Hooley J. Influence of polyelectrolytes on the crystal growth of calcium sulfate dihydrate. J Colloid Interface Sci 1986; 111: 496–503.10.1016/0021-9797(86)90052-4Search in Google Scholar

Anastas PT, Warner JC. Principles of green chemistry. In: Green chemistry: theory and practice. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998: 29–56.Search in Google Scholar

Asadi M, Khoshkhoo RH. Investigation into fouling factor in compact heat exchanger. IJIAS 2013; 2: 238–249.Search in Google Scholar

Bai X, Tran TH, Yu D, Vimalanandan A, Hu X, Rohwerder M. Novel conducting polymer based composite coatings for corrosion protection of zinc. Corros Sci 2015; 95: 110–116.10.1016/j.corsci.2015.03.003Search in Google Scholar

Baier R. Substrata influences on adhesion of microorganisms and their resultant new surface properties. In: Bitton G, Marshall KS, editors. Adsorption of microorganisms to surfaces. New York: Wiley, 1980: 59–104.Search in Google Scholar

Baker JS, Judd SJ. Magnetic amelioration of scale formation. Water Res 1996; 30: 247–260.10.1016/0043-1354(95)00184-0Search in Google Scholar

Baker JS, Judd SJ, Parsons SA. Antiscale magnetic pretreatment of reverse osmosis feedwater. Desalination 1997; 110: 151–165.10.1016/S0011-9164(97)00094-5Search in Google Scholar

Bansal B. Crystallisation fouling in plate heat exchangers. (PhD Research), The University of Auckland, New Zealand, 1994.Search in Google Scholar

Baraka-Lokmane S, Sorbie K, Poisson N, Kohler N. Can green scale inhibitors replace phosphonate scale inhibitors? Carbonate coreflooding experiments. Petrol Sci Technol 2009; 27: 427–441.10.1080/10916460701764605Search in Google Scholar

Bell K, Mueller A. Wolverine heat transfer data book II (online ed.) Wolverine Tube Inc, 2001. Available at: https://www.thermalfluidscentral.org/e-books/book-intro.php.Search in Google Scholar

Bernardin JD, Chan S. Magnetic effects on simulated brine properties pertaining to magnetic water treatment. Am Soc Mech Eng Heat Transfer Div 1991; 164: 109–117.Search in Google Scholar

Boels L, Witkamp G-J. Carboxymethyl inulin biopolymers: a green alternative for phosphonate calcium carbonate growth inhibitors. Cryst Growth Des 2011; 11: 4155–4165.10.1021/cg2007183Search in Google Scholar

Bott T. Fouling of heat exchangers. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 1973.Search in Google Scholar

Bott TR. Fouling of heat exchangers. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 1995.Search in Google Scholar

Bott TR. The fouling of heat exchangers. Wellington, New Zealand: Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR), 1981.Search in Google Scholar

Bott T, Gudmundsson J. Rippled silica deposits in heat exchanger tubes. Paper presented at the 6th International Heat Transfer Conference, volume 4, 1978.10.1615/IHTC6.1870Search in Google Scholar

Bott T, Walker R. Fouling in heat transfer equipment. Chem Eng-London 255, 1971: 391–395.Search in Google Scholar

Bramson D, Hasson D, Semiat R. The roles of gas bubbling, wall crystallization and particulate deposition in CaSO4 scale formation. Desalination 1995; 100: 105–113.10.1016/0011-9164(96)00012-4Search in Google Scholar

Brusilovsky M, Borden J, Hasson D. Flux decline due to gypsum precipitation on RO membranes. Desalination 1992; 86: 187–222.10.1016/0011-9164(92)80033-6Search in Google Scholar

Busch KW, Busch M. Laboratory studies involving magnetic water treatment devices. In: Busch KW, Busch MA, Parker DH, Darling RE, McAtee JL, Jr. Corrosion 85/251. Houston, TX: NACE, 1986.Search in Google Scholar

Busch KW, Busch M, Parker D, Darling R, McAtee Jr J. Studies of a water treatment device that uses magnetic fields. Corrosion 1986; 42: 211–221.10.5006/1.3585999Search in Google Scholar

Busch K, Busch M, Darling R, Maggard S, Kubala S. Design of a test loop for the evaluation of magnetic water treatment devices. Process Saf Environ 1997; 75: 105–114.10.1205/095758297528878Search in Google Scholar

Chambers S, Thevuthasan S, Farrow R, Marks R, Thiele J, Folks L, Samant MG, Kellock AJ, Ruzycki N, Diebold U, Ederer D. Epitaxial growth and properties of ferromagnetic co-doped TiO2 anatase. Appl Phys Lett 2001; 79: 3467–3469.10.1063/1.1420434Search in Google Scholar

Chandler J. Effect of supersaturation and flow conditions on the initiation of scale formation. Trans Inst Chem Eng 1964; 42: 24–34.Search in Google Scholar

Chang C-H, Huang T-C, Peng C-W, Yeh T-C, Lu H-I, Hung W-I, Weng CJ, Yang TI, Yeh J-M. Novel anticorrosion coatings prepared from polyaniline/graphene composites. Carbon 2012; 50: 5044–5051.10.1016/j.carbon.2012.06.043Search in Google Scholar

Cho Y, Fridman A, Lee S, Kim W. Physical water treatment for fouling prevention in heat exchangers. Adv Heat Transfer 2004; 38: 1–72.10.1016/S0065-2717(04)38001-9Search in Google Scholar

Cho YI, Lane J, Kim W. Pulsed-power treatment for physical water treatment. Int Commun Heat Mass 2005; 32: 861–871.10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2004.10.033Search in Google Scholar

Collins I. A new model for mineral scale adhesion. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Oilfield Scale, Aberdeen, UK, 2002.10.2118/74655-MSSearch in Google Scholar

Coussement PA. Inulin and oligofructose: safe intakes and legal status. J Nutr 1999; 129: 1412S–1417s.10.1093/jn/129.7.1412SSearch in Google Scholar

Cowan JC, Weintritt DJ. Water-formed scale deposits. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company, Book Division, 1976.Search in Google Scholar

Crittenden B, Khater E. Fouling from vaporizing kerosene. J Heat Trans 1987; 109: 583–589.10.1115/1.3248128Search in Google Scholar

Dalas E, Koutsoukos PG. The effect of magnetic fields on calcium carbonate scale formation. J Cryst Growth 1989; 96: 802–806.10.1016/0022-0248(89)90640-4Search in Google Scholar

Daminov A, Ragulin V, Voloshin A. Mechanism of corrosion damage formation in downhole equipment in wells protected by continuous scale inhibitor dosing using surface dosing systems. Testing of scale and corrosion inhibitors. Paper presented at the SPE International Oilfield Corrosion Symposium, Aberdeen, UK, 2006.10.2118/100476-MSSearch in Google Scholar

Deivanayaki S, Ponnuswamy V, Jayamurugan P, Ashokan S. The structure and properties of polypyrrole/titaniumdioxide nanospheres of various dopant percentages by chemical oxidation method. Elixir Polymer B 2012; 49: 10182–10185.Search in Google Scholar

Demadis KD, Mavredaki E. Green additives to enhance silica dissolution during water treatment. Environ Chem Lett 2005; 3: 127–131.10.1007/s10311-005-0015-0Search in Google Scholar

Demadis KD, Neofotistou E. Synergistic effects of combinations of cationic polyaminoamide dendrimers/anionic polyelectrolytes on amorphous silica formation: a bioinspired approach. Chem Mater 2007; 19: 581–587.10.1021/cm062370dSearch in Google Scholar

Demadis KD, Mavredaki E, Stathoulopoulou A, Neofotistou E, Mantzaridis C. Industrial water systems: problems, challenges and solutions for the process industries. Desalination 2007; 213: 38–46.10.1016/j.desal.2006.01.042Search in Google Scholar

Demadis KD, Pachis K, Ketsetzi A, Stathoulopoulou A. Bioinspired control of colloidal silica in vitro by dual polymeric assemblies of zwitterionic phosphomethylated chitosan and polycations or polyanions. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2009; 151: 33–48.10.1016/j.cis.2009.07.005Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Donaldson J. Magnetic treatment of fluids – preventing scale. Finishing 1988; 12: 22.Search in Google Scholar

Donaldson J, Grimes S. Lifting the scales from our pipes. New Sci. 1988; 117: 43–46.Search in Google Scholar

Duffy G, McShane K. Heat-transfer fouling mitigation with model synthetic fibre suspensions. Asia-Pac J Chem Eng 2007; 2: 407–412.10.1002/apj.74Search in Google Scholar

Ebenso E, Alemu H, Umoren S, Obot I. Inhibition of mild steel corrosion in sulphuric acid using alizarin yellow GG dye and synergistic iodide additive. Int J Electrochem Sci 2008; 3: 1325–1339.Search in Google Scholar

Edwards M, Wilkinson M. Review of potential applications of pulsating flow in pipes. Trans Inst Chem Eng Chem Eng 1971; 49: 85–94.Search in Google Scholar

El Dahan H, Hegazy H. Gypsum scale control by phosphate ester. Desalination 2000; 127: 111–118.10.1016/S0011-9164(99)00196-4Search in Google Scholar

El-Shall H, Abdel-Aal E, Moudgil B. Effect of surfactants on phosphogypsum crystallization and filtration during wet-process phosphoric acid production. Sep Sci Technol 2000; 35: 395–410.10.1081/SS-100100164Search in Google Scholar

Eriksson R, Merta J, Rosenholm JB. The calcite/water interface: I. Surface charge in indifferent electrolyte media and the influence of low-molecular-weight polyelectrolyte. J Colloid Interface Sci 2007; 313: 184–193.10.1016/j.jcis.2007.04.034Search in Google Scholar

Ellingsen F, Fjeldsend O. A review of scale formation and scale prevention, with emphasis on magnetic water treatment. Water Supply 1983; 1: 8.Search in Google Scholar

Flesher P, Streatfield E, Pearse A, Hydes O. 3RD International Symp. Fresh Water Sea 1970; 1: 493.Search in Google Scholar

Fletcher M. The physiological activity of bacteria attached to solid surfaces. Adv Microb Physiol 1991; 32: 53–85.10.1016/S0065-2911(08)60005-3Search in Google Scholar

Frenier WW, Ziauddin M. Formation, removal, and inhibition of inorganic scale in the oilfield environment. Richardson, TX: Society of Petroleum Engineers, 2008.10.2118/9781555631406Search in Google Scholar

Gainey R, Thorp C. CaSO4 seeding prevents CaSO4 scale. Ind Eng Chem 1963; 55: 39–43.10.1021/ie50639a009Search in Google Scholar

Gallup DL. Investigations of organic inhibitors for silica scale control in geothermal brines. Geothermics 2002; 31: 415–430.10.1016/S0375-6505(02)00004-4Search in Google Scholar

Gallup DL, Barcelon E. Investigations of organic inhibitors for silica scale control from geothermal brines–II. Geothermics 2005; 34: 756–771.10.1016/j.geothermics.2005.09.002Search in Google Scholar

Gamayunov N. Action of a static magnetic field on moving solutions and suspensions. New York: Plenum, 1994.Search in Google Scholar

Garrett-Price B. Fouling of heat exchangers: characteristics, costs, prevention, control and removal. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications, 1985: 417.Search in Google Scholar

Gerbino AJ. The adsorption of diethylenetriamine penta (methylenephosphonic acid) on clay and metal oxide surfaces. Rice University, 1994.Search in Google Scholar

Gill J, Nancollas G. Kinetics of growth of calcium sulfate crystals at heated metal surfaces. J Cryst Growth 1980; 48: 34–40.10.1016/0022-0248(80)90190-6Search in Google Scholar

Grandgeorge S, Jallut C, Thonon B. Particulate fouling of corrugated plate heat exchangers. Global kinetic and equilibrium studies. Chem Eng Sci 1998; 53: 3050–3071.10.1016/S0009-2509(98)00128-6Search in Google Scholar

Grutsch JF, McClintock JW. Corrosion and deposit control in alkaline cooling water using magnetic water treatment at AMOCO’s largest refinery. Paper presented at the Corrosion 84, NACE, 1984.Search in Google Scholar

Gunn D. Effect of surface roughness on the nucleation and growth of calcium sulphate on metal surfaces. J Cryst Growth 1980; 50: 533–537.10.1016/0022-0248(80)90104-9Search in Google Scholar

Harris A, Marshall A. The evaluation of scale control additives. Paper presented at the Proceedings of Symposium on Progress in the Prevention of Fouling in Industrial Plant, 1981.Search in Google Scholar

Hart JR. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and related chelating agents. In: Ullmann’s encyclopedia of industrial chemistry. New York: Wiley, 2000.Search in Google Scholar

Hasson D. Rate of decrease of heat transfer due to scale deposition. Dechema-Monographien 1962; 47: 233–252.Search in Google Scholar

Hasson D, Bramson D. Effectiveness of magnetic water treatment in suppressing calcium carbonate scale deposition. Ind Eng Chem Process Des Dev 1985; 24: 588–592.10.1021/i200030a012Search in Google Scholar

Hasson D, Karmon M. Novel process for lining water mains by controlled calcite deposition. Paper presented at the 5th International Conference on the Internal and External Protection of Pipes, 1983.Search in Google Scholar

Herndon RC, Hubble PE, Gainer JL. Two pulsators for increasing heat transfer. Ind Eng Chem Process Des Dev 1980; 19: 405–410.10.1021/i260075a014Search in Google Scholar

Herz A, Malayeri M, Müller-Steinhagen H. Fouling of roughened stainless steel surfaces during convective heat transfer to aqueous solutions. Energy Convers Manag 2008; 49: 3381–3386.10.1016/j.enconman.2007.09.034Search in Google Scholar

Herzog RE, Shi Q, Patil JN, Katz JL. Magnetic water treatment: the effect of iron on calcium carbonate nucleation and growth. Langmuir 1989; 5: 861–867.10.1021/la00087a048Search in Google Scholar

Higashitani K, Oshitani J. Measurements of magnetic effects on electrolyte solutions by atomic force microscope. Process Saf Environ 1997; 75: 115–119.10.1205/095758297528887Search in Google Scholar

Higashitani K, Kage A, Katamura S, Imai K, Hatade S. Effects of a magnetic field on the formation of CaCO3 particles. J Colloid Interface Sci 1993; 156: 90–95.10.1006/jcis.1993.1085Search in Google Scholar

Hosseini M, Sadri R, Kazi SN, Bagheri S, Nashrul Mohd Zubir M, Bee Teng C, Zaharinie T. Experimental study on heat transfer and thermo-physical properties of covalently functionalized carbon nanotubes nanofluids in an annular heat exchanger: a green and novel synthesis. Energy Fuels 2017; 31: 5635–5644.10.1021/acs.energyfuels.6b02928Search in Google Scholar

Johannsen F. Toxicological profile of carboxymethyl inulin. Food Chem Toxicol 2003; 41: 49–59.10.1016/S0278-6915(02)00213-2Search in Google Scholar

Jones L. Development of a mineral scale inhibitor. Corrosion 1961; 17: 232t–236t.10.5006/0010-9312-17.5.110Search in Google Scholar

Jordan M, Sorbie K, Chen P, Armitage P, Hammond P, Taylor K. The design of polymer and phosphonate scale inhibitor precipitation treatments and the importance of precipitate solubility in extending squeeze lifetime. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Oilfield Chemistry, Houston, Texas, USA, 1997.10.2118/37275-MSSearch in Google Scholar

Junghahn L. Methoden Zum Herabsetzen oder Verhindern der Krustenbildung. Chem Ing Tech 1964; 36: 60–67.10.1002/cite.330360110Search in Google Scholar

Kamaraj K, Karpakam V, Sathiyanarayanan S, Venkatachari G. Electrosysnthesis of poly(aniline-co-m-amino benzoic acid) for corrosion protection of steel. Mater Chem Phys 2010; 122: 123–128.10.1016/j.matchemphys.2010.02.061Search in Google Scholar

Kan A, Tomson M. Scale prediction for oil and gas production. SPE J 2012; 17: 362–378.10.2118/132237-MSSearch in Google Scholar

Kan AT, Fu G, Tomson MB. Adsorption and precipitation of an aminoalkylphosphonate onto calcite. J Colloid Interface Sci 2005; 281: 275–284.10.1016/j.jcis.2004.08.054Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Karagiannis IC, Soldatos PG. Water desalination cost literature: review and assessment. Desalination 2008; 223: 448–456.10.1016/j.desal.2007.02.071Search in Google Scholar

Karamercan OE, Gainer JL. The effect of pulsations on heat transfer. Ind Eng Chem Fundam 1979; 18: 11–15.10.1021/i160069a003Search in Google Scholar

Kazi MSN. Heat transfer to fibre suspensions: studies in fibre characterisation and fouling mitigation. (PhD Research), University of Auckland, 2001.Search in Google Scholar

Kazi S. Fouling and fouling mitigation on heat exchanger surfaces. IntechOpen Access Publisher, 2012.10.1016/j.desal.2011.12.022Search in Google Scholar

Kazi S, Duffy G, Chen X. Heat exchanger fouling mitigation with flexible fibres. Paper presented at the 26th Annual Chemeca Conference, Port Douglas, Australia, 1998.Search in Google Scholar

Kazi SN, Duffy GG, Chen XD. Fiber-modified scaling in heat transfer fouling mitigation. Chem Eng Commun 2002a; 189: 742–758.10.1080/00986440212471Search in Google Scholar

Kazi S, Duffy G, Chen X. Heat transfer fouling mitigation with wood pulp fibres. Paper presented at the Proc. Heat Exchanger Fouling Conference–Fund. Approaches and Tech. Solns, 2002b.Search in Google Scholar

Kazi SN, Duffy GG, Chen XD. Fouling and fouling mitigation on heated metal surfaces. Desalination 2012a; 288: 126–134.10.1016/j.desal.2011.12.022Search in Google Scholar

Kazi S, Duffy G, Chen X. Validation of heat transfer data for fibre suspensions in coaxial pipe heat exchangers. Exp Therm Fluid Sci 2012b; 38: 210–222.10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2011.12.009Search in Google Scholar

Kazi S, Duffy G, Chen X. Fouling mitigation of heat exchangers with natural fibres. Appl Therm Eng 2013; 50: 1142–1148.10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2012.08.042Search in Google Scholar

Kazi S, Teng K, Zakaria M, Sadeghinezhad E, Bakar M. Study of mineral fouling mitigation on heat exchanger surface. Desalination 2015; 367: 248–254.10.1016/j.desal.2015.04.011Search in Google Scholar

Keil R, Baird M. Enhancement of heat transfer by flow pulsation. Ind Eng Chem Process Des Dev 1971; 10: 473–478.10.1021/i260040a008Search in Google Scholar

Kern D, Seaton R. A theoretical analysis of thermal surface fouling. Br Chem Eng 1959; 4: 258–262.Search in Google Scholar

Ketsetzi A, Stathoulopoulou A, Demadis KD. Being “green” in chemical water treatment technologies: issues, challenges and developments. Desalination 2008; 223: 487–493.10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.230Search in Google Scholar

Khan G. Heat transfer to fiber suspensions – studies of particle characterization and fouling and corrosion mitigation. (PhD Research), University of Malaya, Malaysia. Available from UM Library, 2017.Search in Google Scholar

Khan G, Newaz KMS, Basirun WJ, Ali HBM, Faraj FL, Khan GM. Application of natural product extracts as green corrosion inhibitors for metals and alloys in acid pickling processes-a review. Int J Electrochem Sci 2015; 10: 6120–6134.Search in Google Scholar

Kherbeet AS, Mohammed H, Salman B, Ahmed HE, Alawi OA. Experimental and numerical study of nanofluid flow and heat transfer over microscale backward-facing step. Int J Heat Mass Transfer 2014; 79: 858–867.10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2014.08.074Search in Google Scholar

Kim W, Cho DJ, Cho YI. Use of RF electric fields for simultaneous mineral and bio-fouling control in a heat exchanger. Int Commun Heat Mass 2011; 38: 1003–1007.10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2011.05.007Search in Google Scholar

Knudsen JG. Fouling of heat transfer surface: an overview. In: Marto PJ, Nunn RH, editors. Power condenser – heat transfer technology. London: Hemisphere, 1981: 375–424.Search in Google Scholar

Kobe S, Dražić G, Cefalas AC, Sarantopoulou E, Stražišar J. Nucleation and crystallization of CaCO3 in applied magnetic fields. Cryst Eng 2002; 5: 243–253.10.1016/S1463-0184(02)00035-7Search in Google Scholar

Krisher A. Raw water treatment in CPI. Chem Eng 1978; 85: 79–98.Search in Google Scholar

Kronenberg K. Experimental evidence for effects of magnetic fields on moving water. IEEE Trans Magnet 1985; 21: 2059–2061.10.1109/TMAG.1985.1064019Search in Google Scholar

Kronenberg K. Physical water treatment de-mystified. Magnets 1986; 6–15.Search in Google Scholar

Kuo RJ, Matijevic E. Particle adhesion and removal in model systems: III. Monodispersed ferric oxide on steel. J Colloid Interface Sci 1980; 78: 407–421.10.1016/0021-9797(80)90581-0Search in Google Scholar

Kuppan T. Heat exchanger design handbook, vol. 126. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2000.Search in Google Scholar

Ladan M, Basirun WJ, Kazi SN, Rahman FA. Corrosion protection of AISI 1018 steel using Co-doped TiO2/polypyrrole nanocomposites in 3.5% NaCl solution. Mater Chem Phys 2017; 192: 361–373.10.1016/j.matchemphys.2017.01.085Search in Google Scholar

Lei Y, Ohtsuka T, Sheng N. Corrosion protection of copper by polypyrrole film studied by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and the electrochemical quartz microbalance. Appl Surf Sci 2015; 357: 1122–1132.10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.09.053Search in Google Scholar

Lin Y-P, Singer PC, Aiken GR. Inhibition of calcite precipitation by natural organic material: kinetics, mechanism, and thermodynamics. Environ Sci Technol 2005; 39: 6420–6428.10.1021/es050470zSearch in Google Scholar

Lindner E. A low surface free energy approach in the control of marine biofouling. Biofouling 1992; 6: 193–205.10.1080/08927019209386222Search in Google Scholar

Lipus L, Ačko B, Hamler A. Electromagnets for high-flow water processing. Chem Eng Process 2011; 50: 952–958.10.1016/j.cep.2011.07.004Search in Google Scholar

Liu S-T, Nancollas GH. The crystal growth of calcium sulfate dihydrate in the presence of additives. J Colloid Interface Sci 1973; 44: 422–429.10.1016/0021-9797(73)90318-4Search in Google Scholar

Ludlow J, Kirwan D, Gainer J. Heat transfer with pulsating flow. Chem Eng Commun 1980; 7: 211–218.10.1080/00986448008912559Search in Google Scholar

MacShane K. Heat transfer to model fibre suspensions-fibre quality prediction and fouling mitigation. M. Eng., Department of Chemical and Material Engineering, The University of Auckland, Auckland, 2004.Search in Google Scholar

Manoli F, Kanakis J, Malkaj P, Dalas E. The effect of aminoacids on the crystal growth of calcium carbonate. J Cryst Growth 2002; 236: 363–370.10.1016/S0022-0248(01)02164-9Search in Google Scholar

Marriott J. Where and how to use plate heat exchangers. Chem Eng 1971; 78: 127–134.Search in Google Scholar

Mavredaki E, Stathoulopoulou A, Neofotistou E, Demadis KD. Environmentally benign chemical additives in the treatment and chemical cleaning of process water systems: implications for green chemical technology. Desalination 2007; 210: 257–265.10.1016/j.desal.2006.05.050Search in Google Scholar

McCartney E, Alexander A. The effect of additives upon the process of crystallization: I. Crystallization of calcium sulfate. J Colloid Sci 1958; 13: 383–396.10.1016/0095-8522(58)90047-3Search in Google Scholar

McGuire J, Swartzel KR. The influence of solid surface energetics on macromolecular adsorption from milk. J Food Process Preserv 1989; 13: 145–160.10.1111/j.1745-4549.1989.tb00097.xSearch in Google Scholar

Merisalu M, Kahro T, Kozlova J, Niilisk A, Nikolajev A, Marandi M, Floren A, Alles H, Sammelselg V. Graphene-polypyrrole thin hybrid corrosion resistant coatings for copper. Synth Met 2015; 200: 16–23.10.1016/j.synthmet.2014.12.024Search in Google Scholar

Middis J, Paul S, Müller-Steinhagen H, Duffy G. Reduction of heat transfer fouling by the addition of wood pulp fibers. Heat Transfer Eng 1998; 19: 36–44.10.1080/01457639808939919Search in Google Scholar

Muller-Steinhagen H. Fouling: the ultimate challenge for heat exchanger design. Paper presented at the 6th International Symposium on Transport Phenomena in Thermal Engineering, 1993a.Search in Google Scholar

Muller-Steinhagen HM. Fouling of heat transfer surfaces, 1st ed., Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag GmbH, 1993b.Search in Google Scholar

Müller-Steinhagen H. Cooling-water fouling in heat exchangers. In: Advances in heat transfer, vol. 33. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier, 1999: 415–496.Search in Google Scholar

Müller-Steinhagen H, Middis J. Particulate fouling in plate heat exchangers. Heat Transfer Eng 1989; 10: 30–36.10.1080/01457638908939714Search in Google Scholar

Müller-Steinhagen H, Reif F, Epstein N, Watkinson A. Influence of operating conditions on particulate fouling. Can J Chem Eng 1988; 66: 42–50.10.1002/cjce.5450660106Search in Google Scholar

Müller-Steinhagen H, Malayeri MR, Watkinson AP. Fouling of heat exchangers – new approaches to solve an old problem. Heat Transfer Eng 2005; 26: 1–4.10.1080/01457630590889906Search in Google Scholar

Nancollas GH, White W, Tsai F, Low LM. The kinetics and mechanism of formation of calcium sulfate scale minerals – the influence of inhibitors. Corrosion 1979; 35: 304–308.10.5006/0010-9312-35.7.304Search in Google Scholar

Palen JW. Heat exchanger sourcebook. New York: Springer, 1986.Search in Google Scholar

Panchal C, Knudsen J. Mitigation of water fouling: technology status and challenges. Adv Heat Transfer 1998; 31: 431–474.10.1016/S0065-2717(08)70244-2Search in Google Scholar

Papadaki M, Demadis KD. Structural mapping of hybrid metal phosphonate corrosion inhibiting thin films. Comments Inorg Chem 2009; 30: 89–118.10.1080/02603590903320916Search in Google Scholar

Park CW, Cho HC, Kang YT. The effect of heat transfer additive and surface roughness of micro-scale hatched tubes on absorption performance. Int J Refrig 2004; 27: 264–270.10.1016/j.ijrefrig.2003.09.008Search in Google Scholar

Parkinson G, Price W. Getting the most out of cooling water. Chem Eng 1984; 91: 22–25.Search in Google Scholar

Parsons S. Overview of recent magnetic treatment research at Cranfield University. MAG3, anti-scale magnetic treatment and physical conditions. Cranfield University, UK, 1999.Search in Google Scholar

Parsons S, Judd S, Stephenson T, Udol S, Wang B. Magnetically augmented water treatment. Process Saf Environ 1997a; 75: 98–104.10.1205/095758297528869Search in Google Scholar

Parsons SA, Wang B-L, Judd SJ, Stephenson T. Magnetic treatment of calcium carbonate scale – effect of pH control. Water Res 1997b; 31: 339–342.10.1016/S0043-1354(96)00238-2Search in Google Scholar

Pitts Jr MM. Electrostatic device for water treatment: Google Patents, 1997.Search in Google Scholar

Pritchard A, Freyer P. Cleaning of fouled surfaces: a discussion fouling science and technology. New York: Springer, 1988: 721–726.10.1007/978-94-009-2813-8_48Search in Google Scholar

Rankin B, Adamson W. Scale formation as related to evaporator surface conditions. Desalination 1973; 13: 63–87.10.1016/S0011-9164(00)80092-2Search in Google Scholar

Rautenbach R, Habbe R. Seeding technique for “Zero-Discharge” processes, adaption to electrodialysis. Desalination 1991; 84: 153–161.10.1016/0011-9164(91)85126-FSearch in Google Scholar

Reitzer B. Rate of scale formation in tubular heat exchangers. Mathematical analysis of factors influencing rate of decline of over-all heat transfer coefficients. Ind Eng Chem Process Des Dev 1964; 3: 345–348.10.1021/i260012a013Search in Google Scholar

Ritter R. Crystalline fouling studies. J Heat Transfer 1983; 105: 374–378.10.1115/1.3245588Search in Google Scholar

Rost M, Duffy G. Fouling mitigation with synthetic fibres in a CaSO4 supersaturated solution. In: Müller-Steinhagen H, Reza Malayeri M, Paul Watkinson A, editors. ECI symposium series, volume RP5: proceedings of 7th International Conference on Heat exchanger fouling and cleaning – Challenges and opportunities. Tomar, Portugal: Engineering conferences International, 2007.Search in Google Scholar

Sarig S, Kahana F, Leshem R. Selection of threshold agents for calcium sulfate scale control on the basis of chemical structure. Desalination 1975; 17: 215–229.10.1016/S0011-9164(00)84057-6Search in Google Scholar

Sawyer CN. Chemistry for environmental engineering and science. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003.Search in Google Scholar

Sexsmith DR, Petrey EQ. The use of polyelectrolytes for scale control in sea water evaporators. Desalination 1973; 13: 89–90.10.1016/S0011-9164(00)80093-4Search in Google Scholar

Shah RK, Sekulic DP. Fundamentals of heat exchanger design. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2003.10.1002/9780470172605Search in Google Scholar

Shen D, Fu G, Alsaiari HA, Kan AT, Tomson MB. Seawater injection, inhibitor transport and rock-brine interactions. Paper presented at the SPE International Oilfield Scale Conference, Aberdeen, UK, 2008a.10.2118/114062-MSSearch in Google Scholar

Shen D, Zhang P, Kan AT, Fu G, Alsaiari HA, Tomson MB. Control placement of scale inhibitors in the formation with stable Ca-DTPMP nanoparticle suspension and its transport in porous medium. Paper presented at the SPE International Oilfield Scale Conference, 2008b.10.2118/114063-MSSearch in Google Scholar

Shen Z, Li J, Xu K, Ding L, Ren H. The effect of synthesized hydrolyzed polymaleic anhydride (HPMA) on the crystal of calcium carbonate. Desalination 2012; 284: 238–244.10.1016/j.desal.2011.09.005Search in Google Scholar

Smith B, Alexander A. The effect of additives on the process of crystallization II. Further studies on calcium sulphate (1). J Colloid Interface Sci 1970; 34: 81–90.10.1016/0021-9797(70)90261-4Search in Google Scholar

Somerscales E, Knudsen JG. Fouling of heat transfer equipment. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing, 1981.Search in Google Scholar

Stathoulopoulou A, Demadis KD. Enhancement of silicate solubility by use of “green” additives: linking green chemistry and chemical water treatment. Desalination 2008; 224: 223–230.10.1016/j.desal.2007.06.007Search in Google Scholar

Szostak R, Toy D. Magnetic fluid conditioning system allows 3000 ppm hardness without cooling tower scale buildup. Chem Process 1985; 48: 44–45.Search in Google Scholar

Taborek J, Aoki T, Ritter R, Palen J, Knudsen J. Predictive methods for fouling behavior. Chem Eng Prog 1972; 68: 69–78.Search in Google Scholar

Taborek J, Hewitt GF, Afgan N. Heat exchangers: theory and practice. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing, 1983.Search in Google Scholar

Telkes M. Nucleation of supersaturated inorganic salt solutions. Ind Eng Chem 1952; 44: 1308–1310.10.1021/ie50510a036Search in Google Scholar

Teng KH, Amiri A, Kazi SN, Bakar MA, Chew BT. Fouling mitigation on heat exchanger surfaces by EDTA-treated MWCNT-based water nanofluids. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2016; 60: 445–452.10.1016/j.jtice.2015.11.006Search in Google Scholar

Teng K, Amiri A, Kazi S, Bakar M, Chew B, Al-Shamma’a A, Shaw A. Retardation of heat exchanger surfaces mineral fouling by water-based diethylenetriamine pentaacetate-treated CNT nanofluids. Appl Therm Eng 2017a; 110: 495–503.10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.08.181Search in Google Scholar

Teng K, Kazi S, Amiri A, Habali A, Bakar M, Chew B, Al-Shamma’a A, Shaw A, Solangi KH, Khan G. Calcium carbonate fouling on double-pipe heat exchanger with different heat exchanging surfaces. Powder Technol 2017b; 315: 216–226.10.1016/j.powtec.2017.03.057Search in Google Scholar

Thomas L. Adaptation of the surface renewal approach to momentum and heat transfer for turbulent pulsatile flow. J Heat Transfer 1974; 96: 348–353.10.1115/1.3450204Search in Google Scholar

Thulukkanam K. Heat exchanger design handbook. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2013.10.1201/b14877Search in Google Scholar

Tijing LD, Kim HY, Lee DH, Kim CS, Cho YI. Physical water treatment using RF electric fields for the mitigation of CaCO3 fouling in cooling water. Int J Heat Mass Transfer 2010; 53: 1426–1437.10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2009.12.009Search in Google Scholar

Tombacz E, Ma C, Busch K, Busch M. Effect of a weak magnetic field on hematite sol in stationary and flowing systems. Colloid Polym Sci 1991; 269: 278–289.10.1007/BF00665502Search in Google Scholar

Tomson MB, Oddo JE. Calcite scale handbook: measurement, prediction, and control. Chicago, IL: Gas Research Institute, 1998.Search in Google Scholar

Tomson MB, Fu G, Watson MA, Kan AT. Mechanisms of mineral scale inhibition. Soc Petrol Eng J 2002; 18: 192–199.10.2118/74656-MSSearch in Google Scholar

Tomson MB, Kan AT, Fu G. Control of inhibitor squeeze through mechanistic understanding of inhibitor chemistry. Soc Petrol Eng J 2006; 11: 283–293.10.2118/87450-PASearch in Google Scholar

Tomson MB, Kan AT, Fu G, Shen D, Nasr-El-Din HA, Saiari H, Al Thubaiti MM. Mechanistic understanding of rock/phosphonate interactions and effect of metal ions on inhibitor retention. SPE Journal 2008; 13: 325–336.10.2118/100494-MSSearch in Google Scholar

Troup D, Richardson J. Scale nucleation on a heat transfer surface and its prevention. Chem Eng Commun 1978; 2: 167–180.10.1080/00986447808960458Search in Google Scholar

Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA). Standard of the tubular exchanger manufacturers association. New York: TEMA, 1999.Search in Google Scholar

Verch A, Gebauer D, Antonietti M, Cölfen H. How to control the scaling of CaCO3: a “fingerprinting technique” to classify additives. PCCP 2011; 13: 16811–16820.10.1039/c1cp21328hSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

Verraest DL, Peters JA, van Bekkum H, van Rosmalen GM. Carboxymethyl inulin: a new inhibitor for calcium carbonate precipitation. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1996; 73: 55–62.10.1007/BF02523448Search in Google Scholar

Volkmer D, Fricke M, Huber T, Sewald N. Acidic peptides acting as growth modifiers of calcite crystals. Chem Commun 2004: 1872–1873.10.1039/b405613bSearch in Google Scholar PubMed

Walker G. Industrial heat exchangers: a basic guide. Washington DC: Hemisphere Pub. Corp, 1982.Search in Google Scholar

Walker ME, Safari I, Theregowda RB, Hsieh M-K, Abbasian J, Arastoopour H, Dzombak DA, Miller DC. Economic impact of condenser fouling in existing thermoelectric power plants. Energy 2012; 44: 429–437.10.1016/j.energy.2012.06.010Search in Google Scholar

Wang C, Shen T, Li S, Wang X. Investigation of influence of low phosphorous co-polymer antiscalant on calcium sulfate dihydrate crystal morphologies. Desalination 2014; 348: 89–93.10.1016/j.desal.2014.06.017Search in Google Scholar

Watkinson A, Martinez O. Scaling of heat exchanger tubes by calcium carbonate. ASME J Heat Transfer 1975; 97: 504–508.10.1115/1.3450419Search in Google Scholar

Watkinson AP. Process heat transfer: some practical problems. Can J Chem Eng 1980; 58: 553–558.10.1002/cjce.5450580501Search in Google Scholar

Williams FV, Ruehrwein RA. Effect of polyelectrolytes on the precipitation of calcium carbonate. J Am Chem Soc 1957; 79: 4898–4900.10.1021/ja01575a018Search in Google Scholar

Yoon J, Lund DB. Magnetic treatment of milk and surface treatment of plate heat exchangers: effects on milk fouling. J Food Sci 1994; 59: 964–969.10.1111/j.1365-2621.1994.tb08168.xSearch in Google Scholar

Yuan R, Wu S, Wang B, Liu Z, Mu L, Ji T, Chen L, Liu B, Wang H, Zhu J. Superamphiphobicity and electroactivity enabled dual physical/chemical protections in novel anticorrosive nanocomposite coatings. Polymer 2016; 85: 37–46.10.1016/j.polymer.2016.01.014Search in Google Scholar

Zhao Q, Muller-Steinhagen H. Influence of surface properties on heat exchanger fouling. Paper presented at the Mitigation and Heat Exchanger Fouling Conference, Banff, Canada, 1999.Search in Google Scholar

Ziegler F, Grossman G. Heat-transfer enhancement by additives. Int J Refrig 1996; 19: 301–309.10.1016/S0140-7007(96)00032-1Search in Google Scholar

Zubair SM, Shah RK. Fouling in plate-and-frame heat exchangers and cleaning strategies. In: Shah ADRK, Honda H, Rudy TM, editors. Compact heat exchangers and enhancement technology for the process industries. New York: Begell House, 2001: 553–565.Search in Google Scholar

Zhang P, Fan C, Lu H, Kan AT, Tomson MB. Silica-templated synthesis of zinc-DTPMP nanoparticles, their transport in carbonate and sandstone porous media and scale inhibition. Soc Petrol Eng J 2011; 16: 662–671.10.2118/130639-MSSearch in Google Scholar

Zhang P, Shen D, Fan C, Kan AT, Tomson MB. Surfactant- assisted synthesis of metal-phosphonate nanoparticles and their transport in porous media. Soc Petrol Eng J 2010; 15: 610–617.10.2118/121552-MSSearch in Google Scholar

Received: 2017-08-14
Accepted: 2018-10-18
Published Online: 2019-01-11
Published in Print: 2020-08-26

©2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Downloaded on 26.4.2024 from https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/revce-2017-0076/html
Scroll to top button