Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The third-millennium International System of Units

  • Published:
La Rivista del Nuovo Cimento Aims and scope

Summary

The International System of Units, SI, in use since 1946, was formally established in October 1960 by the eleventh Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, CGPM, with its resolution 12. In the past years, several changes have been made to the system. The 26th Conference, on 16th November 2018, adopted a revised SI, due to come into force on 20 May 2019. This revision was by far the most radical in the history of the SI. In this paper, I review the system from its origin to the present time, discuss the needs that suggested, and the conditions that allowed such an epochal change, and present the SI of the third millennium.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

Ar(X):

relative atomic mass of the entity X

BIPM:

Bureau international des poids et mesures

c 0 :

speed of light in vacuum

CCE:

Comité

CCEM:

Comité

CCM:

Comité

CCM WGAC:

Working Group on the Avogadro Constant of the Consultative Committee for Mass and Related Quantities (CCM)

CCM WGSI:

Ad hoc Working Group on changes to the SI of the Consultative Committee for Mass and Related Quantities (CCM)

CCPR:

Comité consultatif de photométrie et radiométrie. Consultative Committee for Photometry and Radiometry

CCQM:

Comité consultatif pour la quantité de matière. Consultative Committee for Amount of Substance: Metrology in Chemistry and Biology

CCT:

Comité consultatif de thermométrie. Consultative Committee for Thermometry CCU Comité consultatif des unités. Consultative Committee for Units

CCU WGADQ:

CCU Working Group on Angles and Dimensionless Quantities in the SI of the Consultative Committee for Units (CCU)

CGPM:

Conférence générale des poids et mesures. General Conference on Weights and Measures

CIPM:

Comité internationsl des poids et mesures. International Committee of Weights and Measures

CODATA:

Committee on Data for Science and Technology

CODATA TGFC:

CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants

Cov(Xi, Xj):

covariance for two random variables Xi and Xj

CQED:

Cavity Quantum Electrodynamics

EURAMET:

The European Association of National Metrology Institutes

IAEA:

International Atomic Energy Agency

IEC:

International Electrotechnical Commission

IENGF:

Istituto elettrotecnico nazionale “Galileo Ferraris”

IMGC:

Istituto di metrologia “Gustavo Colonnetti”

INRiM:

Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica

IPTS-68:

International Practical Temperature Scale of 1968

ITS-90:

International Temperature Scale of 1990

IUPAC:

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

IUPAP:

International Union of Pure and Applied Physics

\(\mathfrak{K}\) :

The International Prototype of the kilogram

K J :

Josephson constant KJ = 2e/h

K J-90 :

conventional value of Josephson constant

KCDB:

The BIPM key comparison database

M(12C):

molar mass of 12C

Mu:

molar mass constant

N A :

Avogadro constant

NBS:

National Bureau of Standards (former denomination of NIST)

NIST:

National Institute of Standards and Technology

NMI:

National Metrology Institute

NPL:

National Physical Laboratory

PTB:

Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt

QHE:

Quantum Hall effect

r(xi, xj):

correlation coefficient associated with the estimates xi and xj of the input quantities xi and xj

R∞:

Rydberg constant

R K :

von Klitzing constant Rk = h/e2

R k-90 :

conventional value of von Klitzing constant

T tpw :

temperature of the triple point of water

VSMOW:

Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water

XRCD:

X-Ray Crystal Density

Z 0 :

characteristic impedance of free space

α:

fine-structure constant

ϵ0:

electric constant, permittivity of free space

μ 0 :

magnetic constant, permeability of free space

References

  1. Maxwell J. C., A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (Oxford University Press) 1873.

  2. de Boer J., Metrologia, 31 (1995) 405. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/31/i=6/a=001

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  3. BIPM, IEC, IFCC, ILAC, ISO, IUPAC, IUPAP and OIML, International Vocabulary of Metrology — Basic and General Concepts and Associated Terms, Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology, JCGM 200:2012. URL http://www.bipm.org/en/publications/guides/vim.html

  4. Mari L., Ehrlich C. and Pendrill L., Metrologia, 55 (2018) 716. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/55/i=5/a=716

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  5. Comitéinternationaldespoidsetmesures, CIPM, Decisions 12 and 13 (2018). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/meeting/107.html

  6. Guedj D., Le Mètre du monde (Seuil) 2000.

  7. CONVENTION DU MÉTRE (1875). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/worldwide-metrology/metre-convention/official-texts/

  8. Quinn T. J., From Artefacts to Atoms (Oxford University Press) 2011.

  9. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Resolution 12 of the 11thCGPM (1960). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/11/12/

  10. Comitéinternationaldespoidsetmesures, CIPM, Resolution 2 (1946). URL http://www.bipm.Org/en/CIPM/db/1946/2/

  11. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Comptes rendus des séances de la 9eCGPM (1948). URL https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CGPM/CGPM10.pdf

  12. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Resolution 6 of the 10th CGPM (1954). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/10/6/

  13. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Resolution 3 of the 14th CGPM (1971). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/14/3/

  14. Bureauinternationaldespoidsetmesures, BIPM, Le Système international d’unités, 8e édition (2006). URL http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si_brochure_8.pdf

  15. McNaught A., Wilkinson A. and International Unionof Pureand Applied Chemistry, Compendium of Chemical Terminology: IUPAC Recommendations, IUPAC Chemical Data Series (Blackwell Science) 1997. URL https://goldbook.iupac.org/html/A/A00543.html

  16. Bureauinternationaldespoidsetmesures, BIPM, Brief history of the SI (2006). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/measurement-units/history-si/

  17. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Comptes rendus des séances de la 3eCGPM (1901). URL https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CGPM/CGPM3.pdf

  18. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Comptes rendus des séances de la 1eCGPM (1889). URL https://www.bipm.org/fr/CGPM/db/1/1/

  19. Stock M., Barat P., Davis R. S., Picard A. and Milton M. J. T., Metrologia, 52 (2015) 310. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/52/i=2/a=310

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  20. De Mirandés E., Barat P., Stock M. and Milton M. J. T., Metrologia, 53 (2016) 1204. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=5/a=1204

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  21. Dirac P. A. M., Proc. R. Soc. A, 165 (1938) 199. URL http://rspa.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/165/921/199

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  22. Huntemann N., Lipphardt B., Tamm C., Gerginov V., Weyers S. and Peik E., Phys. Rev. Lett., 113 (2014) 210802. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.210802

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  23. Rosenband T., Hume D. B., Schmidt P. O., Chou C. W., Brusch A., Lorini L., Oskay W. H., Drullinger R. E., Fortier T. M., Stalnaker J. E., Diddams S. A., Swann W. C., Newbury N. R., Itano W. M., Wineland D. J. and Bergquist J. C., Science, 319 (2008) 1808. URL http://science.sciencemag.org/content/319/5871/1808

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  24. Safronova M. S., Budker D., DeMille D., Kimball D. F. J., Derevianko A. and Clark C. W., Rev. Mod. Phys., 90 (2018) 025008.

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  25. Davis R. S., Barat P. and Stock M., Metrologia, 53 (2016) A12. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=5/a=A12

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  26. Davis R., Metrologia, 40 (2003) 299. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/40/i=6/a=001

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  27. McDonald D. and Hunt L. B., A History of Platinum and its Allied Metals (Johson Matthey and Co., Ltd.) 1982.

  28. Decreto Ministeriale 30 novembre 1993, n. 591 — Regolamento concernente la determinazione dei campioni nazionali di talune unita’ di misura del Sistema internazionale (SI) in attuazione dell’art. 3 della legge 11 agosto 1991, n. 273 (GU Serie Generale n.37 del 15-02-1994 — Suppl. Ordinario n. 26) (1993). URL http://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie.generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta=l994-02-15&atto.codiceRedazionale=094G0114&elenco30giorni=false

  29. Stock, M. (BIPM), private communication (2018).

  30. Girard G., Metrologia, 31 (1994) 317. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/31/i=4/a=007

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  31. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Comptes rendus des séances de la 11eCGPM (1960). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/worldwide-metrology/cgpm/resolutions.html#comptes-rendus

  32. Girard, G., The Washing and Cleaning of Kilogram Prototypes at The BIPM — Monographie 90/1, BIPM (1990). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/publications/scientific-output/monographies-misc.html

  33. Comitéinternationaldespoidsetmesures, CIPM, Report of the 78th meeting, Tome 57 (1989). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/publications-cipm.html

  34. Bureauinternationaldespoidsetmesures, CIPM, Le Système international d’unités, 8e édition, Appendix 2 (2006). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/publications/mises-en-pratique/kilogram.html

  35. Comitéinternationaldespoidsetmesures, CIPM, Report of the 79th meeting, Tome 58 (1990). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/publications-cipm.html/

  36. BIPM, IEC, IFCC, ILAC, ISO, IUPAC, IUPAP and OIML, Evaluation of measurement data — Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement, Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology, JCGM 100:2008. URL http://www.bipm.org/utils/common/documents/jcgm/JCGM_100_2008_E.pdf

  37. Comitéconsultatifdesunités, CCU, Report of the 21st meeting (11-12 June 2013) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2013). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/ccu/publications-cc.html

  38. Quinn T. J., Metrologia, 37 (2000) 87. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/37/i=1/a=15

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  39. Giorgi G., J. Inst. Electr. Eng., 34 (1905) 181. URL https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5309776

    Google Scholar 

  40. Giorgi G., IEEE Magn. Lett., 9 (2018) 1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Petley B. W., Metrologia, 31 (1995) 481. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/31/i=6/a=007

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  42. Petley B. W., Metrologia, 31 (1995) 495. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/31/i=6/a=008

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  43. Carron N., arXiv e-prints (2015). URL https://arxiv.org/abs/1506.01951

  44. Garg A., Eur. J. Phys., 39 (2018) 045205. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0143-0807/39/i=4/a=045205

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Josephson B. D., Phys. Lett., 1 (1962) 251.

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  46. von Klitzing K., Dorda G. and Pepper M., Phys. Rev. Lett., 45 (1980) 494. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.45.494

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  47. Taylor B. N. and Witt T. J., Metrologia, 26 (1989) 47. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/26/i=1/a=004

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  48. Mohr P. J. and Taylor B. N., Rev. Mod. Phys., 72 (2000) 351. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.72.351

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  49. Mohr P. J. and Taylor B. N., Rev. Mod. Phys., 77 (2005) 1. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.77.1

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  50. Comitéconsultatifd’électricité, CCE, 13esession — 1972 (12-13 octobre) (1974). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/ccem/publications-cc.html

  51. Comitéconsultatifd’Électricité, CCE, 17esession — 1986 (1986). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/ccem/publications-cc.html

  52. Comitéinternationaldespoidsetmesures, CIPM, Recommendation 1 (CI 1988) (1988). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/CIPM/db/1988/1/

  53. Comitéinternationaldespoidsetmesures, CIPM, Recommendation 2 (CI 1988) (1989). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/CIPM/db/1988/2/

  54. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Resolution 2 of the 19th CGPM (1991). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/19/2/

  55. The BIPM keycomparisondatabase. URL https://kcdb.bipm.org/

  56. NIST DC voltage, multimetersandcalibrators, IV. URL https://kcdb.bipm.org/appendixC/country.list.search.asp?CountSelected=US&iservice=EM/DC.1.1.2

  57. Mohr P. J., Newell D. B. and Taylor B. N., Rev. Mod. Phys., 88 (2016) 035009. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.88.035009

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  58. Trueb P., πetrillion digits for π (2016). URL http://www.pi2e.ch/

  59. Evenson K. M., Wells J. S., Petersen F. R., Danielson B. L., Day G. W., Barger R. L. and Hall J. L., Phys. Rev. Lett., 29 (1972) 1346. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.29.1346

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  60. Stock M., Solve S., del Campo D., Chimenti V., Méndez-Lango E., Liedberg H., Steur P. P. M., Marcarino P., Dematteis R., Filipe E., Lobo I., Kang K. H., Gam K. S., Kim Y.-G., Renaot E., Bonnier G., Valin M., White R., Dransfield T. D., Duan Y., Xiaoke Y., Strouse G., Ballico M., Sukkar D., Arai M., Mans A., de Groot M., Kerkhof O., Rusby R., Gray J., Head D., Hill K., Tegeler E., Noatsch U., Duris S., Kho H. Y., Ugur S., Pokhodun A. and Gerasimov S. F., Metrologia, 43 (2006) 03001. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/43/i=lA/a=03001

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  61. Comitéinternationaldespoidsetmesures, CIPM, Report of the 94th meeting (2005). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/publications-cipm.html

  62. White D. R. and Tew W. L., Int. J. Thermophys., 31 (2010) 1644.

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  63. Faghihi V., Peruzzi A., Aerts-Bijma A. T., Jansen H. G., Spriensma J. J., van Geel J. and Meijer H. A. J., Metrologia, 52 (2015) 819. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/52/i=6/a=819

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  64. Faghihi V., Kozicki M., Aerts-Bijma A. T., Jansen H. G., Spriensma J. J., Peruzzi A. and Meijer H. A. J., Metrologia, 52 (2015) 827. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/52/i=6/a=827

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  65. Buckingham E., Phys. Rev., 4 (1914) 345. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRev.4.345

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  66. Emerson W. H., Metrologia, 42 (2005) L21. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/42/i=4/a=L01

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  67. Comitéinternationaldespoidsetmesures, CIPM, Report of the 69th meeting, Tome 48 (1980). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cipm/publications-cipm.html

  68. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Resolution 8 of the 20th CGPM (1995). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/20/8/

  69. Comitéconsultatifdephotométrieetradiométrie, CCPR, Report of the 21st meeting (23-24 February 2012) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2013). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/ccpr/publications-cc.html

  70. Comitéconsultatifdesunités, CCU, Report of the 22nd meeting (15-16 June 2016) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2016). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/ccu/publications-cc.html

  71. Egidi C., Nature, 200 (1963) 61. URL http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/200061a0

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  72. EGIDI C., Nature, 201 (1964) 1172.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Mills I. M., Mohr P. J., Quinn T. J., Taylor B. N. and Williams E. R., Metrologia, 42 (2005) 71. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/42/i=2/a=001

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  74. CODATA Task Groupon Fundamental Constants. URL https://www.bipm.org/extra/codata-tgfc/

  75. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Resolution 1 of the 11th CGPM (1983). URL http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/17/1/

  76. Mills I. M., Mohr P. J., Quinn T. J., Taylor B. N. and Williams E. R., Metrologia, 43 (2006) 227. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/43/i=3/a=006

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  77. Quinn T. J., IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., 40 (1991) 81.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Comitéconsultatifpourlamasseetlesgrandeursapparentées, Report of the 9th meeting (28-29 April 2005) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2005). URL https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CC/CCM/CCM9.pdf

  79. Davidson S., Berry J., Abbott P., Marti K., Green R., Malengo A. and Nielsen L., Metrologia, 53 (2016) A95. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=5/a=A95

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  80. Giacomo P., Metrologia, 18 (1982) 33. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/18/i=1/a=006

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  81. Davis R. S., Metrologia, 29 (1992) 67. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/29/i=1/a=008

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  82. Kobayashi Y., On a more precise correction for buoyancy and gas adsorption in mass measurement, in Precision measurement and fundamental constants II, edited by Taylor B. N. and Phillips W. D., Vol. 617 of NIST Special Publications (NIST) 1984, pp. 441–443.

  83. Picard A., Fang H. and Gläser M., Metrologia, 41 (2004) 396. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/41/i=6/a=006

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  84. Park S. Y., Kim J. S., Lee J. B., Esler M. B., Davis R. S. and Wielgosz R. I., Metrologia, 41 (2004) 387. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/41/i=6/a=005

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  85. Picard A., Davis R. S., Gläser M. and Fujii K., Metrologia, 45 (2008) 149. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/45/i=2/a=004

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  86. Williams E. R., Steiner R. L., Newell D. B. and Olsen P. T., Phys. Rev. Lett., 81 (1998) 2404. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.2404

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  87. Steiner R. L., Williams E. R., Newell D. B. and Liu R., Metrologia, 42 (2005) 431. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/42/i=5/a=014

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  88. Preston-Thomas H., Metrologia, 27 (1990) 3. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/27/i=1/a=002

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  89. Comitéconsultatifd’électricitéetmagnétisme, CCEM, Report of the 24th meeting (17-18 March 2005) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2005). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/ccem/publications-cc.html

  90. Comitéconsultatifpourlaquantitédematière, CCQM, Report of the 11th meeting (14-15 April 2005) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2005). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/ccqm/publications-cc.html

  91. Comitéconsultatifdethermométrie, CCT, Report of the 23rd meeting (9-10 June 2005) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2006). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/cct/publications-cc.html

  92. Mohr, Peter, Report on the Meeting of the CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants, 28 June 2005 (2005). URL https://www.bipm.org/cc/AllowedDocuments.jsp?cc=TGFC

  93. Comitéconsultatifdesunités, CCU, Report of the 17th meeting (29 June — 1 July 2005) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2005). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/ccu/publications-cc.html

  94. Cabiati F., The system of units and the measurement standards, in Modern Measurements: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by Ferrero A., Petri D., Carbone P. and Catelani M. (Wiley — IEEE Press) 2015, Ch. 2, pp. 47–85.

  95. Cabiati F. and Bich W., Metrologia, 46 (2009) 457.

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  96. Maxwell J. C., Address to thie mathematical and physical sections of the british association (1870), in The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell, edited by Niven W. D., Vol. II (Dover Publications, New York) 2003, p. 829. URL http://strangebeautiful.com/other-texts/maxwell-scientificpapers-vol-ii-dover.pdf

    Google Scholar 

  97. Kose V. and Wöger W., Metrologia, 22 (1986) 177. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/22/i=3/a=012

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  98. Taylor B. N., IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., 40 (1991) 86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Petley B. W., Metrologia, 29 (1992) 95. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/29/i=2/a=002

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  100. Taylor B. N., Metrologia, 31 (1994) 181. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/31/i=3/a=004

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  101. Tuninsky V. S., Metrologia, 36 (1999) 9. URL http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0026-1394/36/1/2

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  102. Abrosimov N. V., Arefev D. C., Becker P., Bettin H., Bulanov A. D., Churbanov M. F., Filimonov S. V., Gavva V. A., Godisov O. N., Gusev A. V., Kotereva T. V., Nietzold D., Peters M., Potapov A. M., Pohl H.-J., Pramann A., Riemann H., Scheel P.-T., Stosch R., Wundrack S. and Zakel S., Metrologia, 54 (2017) 599. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/54/i=4/a=599

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  103. Deslattes R. D., Henins A., Bowman H. A., Schoonover R. M., Carroll C. L., Barnes I. L., Machlan L. A., Moore L. J. and Shields W. R., Phys. Rev. Lett., 33 (1974) 463. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.33.463

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  104. Deslattes R. D., Henins A., Schoonover R. M., Carroll C. L. and Bowman H. A., Phys. Rev. Lett., 36 (1976) 898. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.36.898

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  105. Cohen E. R. and Taylor B. N., J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 17 (1988) 1795. URL https://doi.org/10.1063/1.555817

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  106. Becker P., Dorenwendt K., Ebeling G., Lauer R., Lucas W., Probst R., Rademacher H.-J., Reim G., Seyfried P. and Siegert H., Phys. Rev. Lett., 46 (1981) 1540. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.46.1540

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  107. Andreas B., Azuma Y., Bartl G., Becker P., Bettin H., Borys M., Busch I., Fuchs P., Fujii K., Fujimoto H., Kessler E., Krumrey M., Kuetgens U., Kuramoto N., Mana G., Massa E., Mizushima S., Nicolaus A., Picard A., Pramann A., Rienitz O., Schiel D., Valkiers S., Waseda A. and Zakel S., Metrologia, 48 (2011) S1. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/48/i=2/a=S01

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Bartl G., Becker P., Beckhoff B., Bettin H., Beyer E., Borys M., Busch I., Cibik L., D’Agostino G., Darlatt E., Luzio M. D., Fujii K., Fujimoto H., Fujita K., Kolbe M., Krumrey M., Kuramoto N., Massa E., Mecke M., Mizushima S., Müller M., Narukawa T., Nicolaus A., Pramann A., Rauch D., Rienitz O., Sasso C. P., Stopic A., Stosch R., Waseda A., Wundrack S., Zhang L. and Zhang X. W., Metrologia, 54 (2017) 693. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/54/i=5/a=693

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  109. Kuramoto N., Mizushima S., Zhang L., Fujita K., Azuma Y., Kurokawa A., Okubo S., Inaba H. and Fujii K., Metrologia, 54 (2017) 716. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/54/i=5/a=716

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  110. Becker P., Friedrich H., Fujii K., Giardini W., Mana G., Picard A., Pohl H.-J., Riemann H. and Valkiers S., Meas. Sci. Technol., 20 (2009) 092002. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0957-0233/20/i=9/a=092002

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  111. Mana G. and Massa E., Riv. Nuovo Cimento, 35 (2012) 353. URL https://www.sif.it/riviste/sif/ncr/econtents/2012/035/07/article/0

    Google Scholar 

  112. Fujii K., Bettin H., Becker P., Massa E., Rienitz O., Pramann A., Nicolaus A., Kuramoto N., Busch I. and Borys M., Metrologia, 53 (2016) A19. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=5/a=A19

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  113. Petley B. W., Kibble B. P. and Hartland A., Nature, 327 (1987) 605 EP. URL https://doi.org/10.1038/327605a0

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  114. CCM, Mise en pratique for the definition of the kilogram in the SI — Draft (2018). URL https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-mep/MeP-kg-2018.pdf

  115. Stock M., Metrologia, 50 (2013) R1. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/50/i=1/a=R1

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  116. Robinson I. A. and Schlamminger S., Metrologia, 53 (2016) A46. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=5/a=A46

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  117. Haddad D., Seifert F., Chao L. S., Li S., Newell D. B., Pratt J. R., Williams C. and Schlamminger S., Metrologia, 53 (2016) A83. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=5/a=A83

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  118. Steiner R., Rep. Prog. Phys., 76 (2013) 016101. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0034-4885/76/i=1/a=016101

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  119. Kibble B. P., Robinson I. A. and Belliss J. H., Metrologia, 27 (1990) 173. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/27/i=4/a=002

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  120. Robinson I. A., Metrologia, 49 (2012) 113. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/49/i=1/a=016

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  121. Steele A. G., Meija J., Sanchez C. A., Yang L., Wood B. M., Sturgeon R. E., Mester Z. and Inglis A. D., Metrologia, 49 (2012) L8. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/49/i=1/a=L03

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  122. Wood B. M., Sanchez C. A., Green R. G. and Liard J. O., Metrologia, 54 (2017) 399. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/54/i=3/a=399

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  123. Moldover M. R., Trusler J. P. M., Edwards T. J., Mehl J. B. and Davis R. S., Phys. Rev. Lett., 60 (1988) 249. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.60.249

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  124. CCT, Mise en pratique for the definition of the kelvin in the SI — Draft (2018). URL https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-mep/MeP-K-2018.pdf

  125. Gaiser C., Fellmuth B., Haft N., Kuhn A., Thiele-Krivoi B., Zandt T., Fischer J., Jusko O. and Sabuga W., Metrologia, 54 (2017) 280. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/54/i=3/a=280

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  126. Fischer J., Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A, 374 (2016) R1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  127. Fischer J., Fellmuth B., Gaiser C., Zandt T., Pitre L., Sparasci F., Plimmer M. D., De Podesta M., Underwood R., Sutton G., Machin G., Gavioso R. M., Madonna Ripa D., Steur P. P. M., Qu J., Feng X. J., Zhang J., Moldover M. R., Benz S. P., White D. R., Gianfrani L., Castrillo A., Moretti L., Darquié B., Moufarej E., Daussy C., Briaudeau S., Kozlova O., Risegari L., Segovia J. J., Martín M. C. and del Campo D., Metrologia, 55 (2018) R1. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/55/i=2/a=R1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. CCQM, Mise en pratique for the definition of the mole in the SI — Draft (2018). URL https://www.bipm.org/cc/CCQM/Allowed/22/CCQM16-04_Mole_m_en_p_draft_2018.pdf

  129. Mohr P. J., Taylor B. N. and Newell D. B., Rev. Mod. Phys., 80 (2008) 633. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.80.633

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  130. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Resolution 12 of the 23rdCGPM (2007). URL http://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/23/12/

  131. Mohr P. J., Metrologia, 45 (2008) 129. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/45/i=2/a=001

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  132. Leonard B. P., Metrologia, 43 (2006) L3. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/43/i=1/a=L01

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  133. Leonard B. P., Metrologia, 44 (2007) 82. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/44/i=1/a=012

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  134. Leonard B. P., Metrologia, 44 (2007) L4. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/44/i=2/a=L02

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  135. Price G., Accred. Quality Assur., 16 (2011) 121. URL https://doi.org/10.1007/s00769-010-0738-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Taylor B. N., Metrologia, 46 (2009) L16. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/46/i=3/a=L01

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  137. Milton M. J. T. and Mills I. M., Metrologia, 46 (2009) 332. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/46/i=3/a=022

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  138. Becker P., De Bièvre P., Fujii K., Gläser M., Inglis B., Luebbig H. and Mana G., Metrologia, 44 (2007) 1. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/44/i=1/a=001

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  139. Comitéconsultatifpourlamasseetlesgrandeursapparentées, Report of the 12th meeting (26 March 2010) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2010). URL https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CC/CCM/CCM12.pdf

  140. Gläser M., Borys M., Ratschko D. and Schwartz R., Metrologia, 47 (2010) 419. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/47/i=4/a=007

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  141. Comitéconsultatifpourlamasseetlesgrandeursapparentées, Report of the 10th meeting (28-29 April 2005) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2007). URL https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CC/CCM/CCM10.pdf

  142. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Resolution 1 of the 24th CGPM (2011). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/24/1/

  143. Conférencegénéraledespoidsetmesures, CGPM, Resolution 1 of the 25th CGPM (2014). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/25/1/

  144. Milton M. J. T., Davis R. and Fletcher N., Metrologia, 51 (2014) R21. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/51/i=3/a=R21

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  145. Mohr P. J., Taylor B. N. and Newell D. B., Rev. Mod. Phys., 84 (2012) 1527. URL https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/RevModPhys.84.1527

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  146. Stock M., Barat P., Pinot P., Beaudoux F., Espel P., Piquemal F., Thomas M., Ziane D., Abbott P., Haddad D., Kubarych Z., Pratt J. R., Schlamminger S., Fujii K., Fujita K., Kuramoto N., Mizushima S., Zhang L., Davidson S., Green R. G., Liard J., Sanchez C., Wood B., Bettin H., Borys M., Busch I., Hämpke M., Krumrey M. and Nicolaus A., Metrologia, 55 (2018) T1. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/55/i=1/a=T1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  147. Comitéconsultatifpourlamasseetlesgrandeursapparentées, Report of the 16th meeting (18-19 May 2017) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2017). URL https://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/CC/CCM/CCM16.pdf

  148. Haddad D., Seifert F., Chao L. S., Possolo A., Newell D. B., Pratt J. R., Williams C. J. and Schlamminger S., Metrologia, 54 (2017) 633. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/54/i=5/a=633

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  149. Mohr P. J., Newell D. B., Taylor B. N. and Tiesinga E., Metrologia, 55 (2018) 125. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/55/i=1/a=125

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Richard P., Fang H. and Davis R., Metrologia, 53 (2016) A6. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=5/a=A6

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  151. Comitéconsultatifdesunités, CCU, Report of the 232nd meeting (5-6 September 2017) to the International Committee for Weights and Measures (2017). URL https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cc/ccu/publications-cc.html

  152. Possolo A., Schlamminger S., Stoudt S., Pratt J. R. and Williams C. J., Metrologia, 55 (2018) 29. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/55/i=1/a=29

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  153. Brownstein K. R., Am. J. Phys., 65 (1997) 605. URL https://doi.org/10.1119/1.18616

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  154. Mohr P. J. and Phillips W. D., Metrologia, 52 (2015) 40. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/52/i=1/a=40

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  155. Mills I., Metrologia, 53 (2016) 991. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=3/a=991

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  156. Brinsmade J. B., Am. J. Phys., 4 (1936) 175. URL https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1999110

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  157. Romain J. E., J. Res. Natl Bur. Stand., 66B (1962) 97. URL http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/jres.066B.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  158. Eder W. E., Metrologia, 18 (1982) 1. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/18/i=1/a=002

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  159. Torrens A. B., Metrologia, 22 (1986) 1. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/22/i=1/a=002

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  160. Dixon D. C., Metrologia, 22 (1986) 245. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/22/i=4/a=002

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  161. Eder W. E., Metrologia, 23 (1987) 171. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/23/i=3/a=007

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  162. Wittmann H., Metrologia, 25 (1988) 193. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/25/i=4/a=001

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  163. Emerson W. H., Metrologia, 42 (2005) L23. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/42/i=4/a=L02

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  164. Leonard B. P., Metrologia, 52 (2015) 613. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/52/i=4/a=613

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  165. Mohr P. J. and Phillips W. D., Metrologia, 52 (2015) 617. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/52/i=4/a=617

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  166. Mills I. M., Metrologia, 53 (2016) 1286. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=6/a=1286

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  167. Quincey P., Metrologia, 53 (2016) 840. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=2/a=840

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  168. Quincey P. and Brown R. J. C., Metrologia, 53 (2016) 998. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=3/a=998

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  169. Krystek M. P., Metrologia, 52 (2015) 297. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/52/i=2/a=297

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  170. Bureauinternationaldespoidsetmesures, BIPM, The International System of Units (SI), 9e édition, Draft (2019). URL https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-revised-brochure/Draft-SI-Brochure-2018.pdf

  171. Metrologia, Input data for the special CODATA-2017 adjustment — Updated 10 August 2017 (2017). URL http://iopscience.iop.org/journal/0026-1394/page/C0DATA-2017_adjustment

  172. Leonard B. P., Metrologia, 47 (2010) L5. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/47/i=3/a=L01

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  173. Stock M., Davidson S., Fang H., Milton M., de Mirandés E., Richard P. and Sutton C., Metrologia, 54 (2017) S99. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/54/i=6/a=S99

    Article  Google Scholar 

  174. Bettin H. and Schlamminger S., Metrologia, 53 (2016) A1. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=5/a=A1

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  175. Rothleitner C., Schleichert J., Rogge N., Günther L., Vasilyan S., Hilbrunner F., Knopf D., Fröhlich T. and Härtig F., Meas. Sci. Technol., 29 (2018) 074003. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0957-0233/29/i=7/a=074003

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  176. Li S., Stock M. and Schlamminger S., Metrologia, 55 (2018) 319. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/55/i=3/a=319

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  177. Robinson I. A., Metrologia, 53 (2016) 1054. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/53/i=4/a=1054

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  178. Ahmedov H., Babayiğit Aškin N., Korutlu B. and Orhan R., Metrologia, 55 (2018) 326. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/55/i=3/a=326

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

  179. CCEM, Mise en pratique for the definition of the ampere and other electric units in the SI — Draft (2018). URL https://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si-mep/MeP-a-2018.pdf

  180. Goldfarb R. B., IEEE Magn. Lett., 8 (2017) 1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  181. Goldfarb R. B., IEEE Magn. Lett., 9 (2018) 1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  182. Leonard B. P., Metrologia, 49 (2012) 487. URL http://stacks.iop.org/0026-1394/49/i=4/a=487

    Article  ADS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Istituto Nazionale di Ricerca Metrologica, INRiM, Torino, Italia

    W. Bich

Authors
  1. W. Bich
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Bich, W. The third-millennium International System of Units. Riv. Nuovo Cim. 42, 49–102 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1393/ncr/i2019-10156-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1393/ncr/i2019-10156-2

Search

Navigation