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Valorization of spent coffee grounds for biodiesel production: blending with higher alcohols, FT-IR, TGA, DSC, and NMR characterizations

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Abstract

Coffee is a global and popular drink with refreshing properties that is consumed in huge amounts daily. During the brewing process, a valuable dark brown organic waste known as spent coffee grounds (SCG) is generated in bulk. SCG has been classified as a promising raw material for the production of various biofuels and added-value products through biorefineries. This paper aims to valorize SCG into biofuel. Firstly, the oil extracted from SCG (SCGO) has been processed into biodiesel fuel. The oil content of SCG has been found to be ~ 12% (by mass). However, SCGO has an extremely high acid value of ~ 24 mg KOH/g oil. Therefore, biodiesel production was conducted through two steps of acid-catalyzed process followed by alkaline-catalyzed transesterification processes along with methanol and heating at 60 °C. It has been found that the properties of spent coffee grounds oil methyl ester (SCGOME) fulfilled ASTM D 6751 biodiesel standards with cetane number of 54.23, kinematic viscosity of 3.73 mm2/s (at 40 °C), flash point of 137.5 °C, density of 891.9 kg/m3 (at 15 °C), oxidation stability of 5.53 h and higher heating value of 39.37 MJ/kg. This is attributed to its excellent degree of unsaturation of 141.54 and long-chain saturated factor of 6.94. Secondly, the qualities of SCGOME and its binary and ternary blends with Euro diesel and three long-chain alcohols of butanol, pentanol, and octanol were considered in this work. This strategy has resulted in a remarkable improvement in both density and cold flow properties and found very close to Euro diesel. Finally, fast, cheap, and reliable characteristics of DSC, FT-IR, TGA, and NMR were examined for the first time in this work to assess the quality of all blends. Such characteristics proved their quality and reliability. In conclusion, this study supports the ongoing research in valorizing SCG to biodiesel through integrated biorefineries towards sustainable circular bioeconomy. It is recommended to conduct detailed engine, emissions, and combustion tests of the blends in the future studies.

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Abbreviations

Ai :

Percentage of fatty acid

ABE:

Acetone-butanol-ethanol

AV:

Acid value

AFRL:

Alternative Fuels Research Laboratory

AMME:

Aleurites moluccanus methyl ester

B:

Biodiesel

But:

Butanol

CI:

Compression ignition

CAMO:

Crude Aleurites moluccanus oil

CH:

Coffee husk

CHO:

Crude hemp oil

CN:

Cetane number

CP:

Cloud point

CFPP:

Cold filter plugging point

COT:

Crystallization onset temperature

CS:

Coffee silverskin

CSO:

Crude safflower oil

D100:

Euro diesel

DSC:

Differential scanning calorimetry

DSCG:

Defatted spent coffee grounds

DU:

Degree of unsaturation

ρ :

Density

DI:

Direct injection

ERU:

Erciyes University

FAC:

Fatty acid composition

FAME:

Fatty acid methyl ester

FFA:

Free fatty acids

FP:

Flash point

FT-IR:

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

FW:

Food waste

GC:

Gas chromatography

HHV:

Higher heating value

HME:

Hemp methyl ester

ICE:

Internal combustion engines

IV:

Iodine value

KV:

Kinematic viscosity

LCSF:

Long-chain saturated factor

LHV:

Lower heating value

M i :

Molecular weight of each fatty acid

MPn :

Melting point of each saturated fatty acid

N :

Number of double bonds of fatty acid

NMR:

Nuclear magnetic resonance

Oct:

Octanol

OS:

Oxidation stability

Pen:

Pentanol

PP:

Pour point

SME:

Safflower methyl ester

SCG:

Spent coffee grounds

SCGO:

Spent coffee grounds oil

SCGOME:

Spent coffee grounds oil methyl ester

SCGOME/WCOME:

Spent coffee ground/waste cooking oil methyl ester

TG:

Thermogravimetry

TGA:

Thermogravimetric analyses

WCO:

Waste cooking oil

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge The Unit of Scientific Research Project Coordination (Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri Koordinatörlüğü/BAP) at Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey, for the financial support under the University Project: FOA-2018-8183 (Priority Research Project/Öncelikli Araştırma Projesi) to perform FT-IR, TGA, NMR, and DSC analyses. The authors would also like to acknowledge the efforts of Dr. Mustafa Kaya (Siirt University) and Dr. Gediz Uğuz (Ondokuz Mayıs University) in helping to execute the GC and spectrum analyses.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Alternative Fuels Research Laboratory (AFRL), Energy Division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Erciyes University, 38039, Kayseri, Turkey

    A. E. Atabani & O. K. Al-Rubaye

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  1. A. E. Atabani
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Correspondence to A. E. Atabani.

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Highlights

• SCG is a valuable organic waste generated in bulk.

• It can be valorized into biofuels and added-value products for integrated biorefineries.

• Valorization of SCG to biodiesel has been demonstrated.

• SCGOME has excellent fatty acid compositions and qualities.

• Diesel and higher alcohols remarkably improve the density and cold flow properties of SCGOME.

• Reliability of FT-IR, TGA, DSC, and NMR techniques was proven.

Novelty statement

Recycling of waste is gaining worldwide attention. This is due to many issues associated with direct dumping into landfills besides the environmental concerns. The current waste management policies of many countries required gradual reduction of waste being dumped into landfills. Valorization of the organic waste generated from the food and beverage industries offers many solutions to the policy makers as they can be processed into useful output such as biofuels and added-value products. This concept promoted many countries to develop integrated biorefineries. SCG is one of those highly valuable organic waste that is generated in huge amounts daily. SCG is a dark brown organic waste with excellent properties. Many current researches have indicated that SCG can be valorized to produce various products. Among which, biofuel production stands as a feasible option as the oil extracted from the SCG can be processed into biodiesel. Several papers have reported biodiesel production from SCG. Therefore, this paper conducted an in-depth analysis of the qualities of the produced biodiesel. Additionally, the paper introduced three long-chain alcohols, namely, butanol, pentanol, and octanol to be blended with biodiesel and diesel and form ternary blends. This is a new trend in the application of biofuels in CI diesel engines. Finally, several fast, cheap, and reliable analytical techniques such as FT-IR, TGA, DSC, and NMR analyses were examined. The success of such an experimental work may support the ongoing research work in recycling towards circular bioeconomy.

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Atabani, A.E., Al-Rubaye, O.K. Valorization of spent coffee grounds for biodiesel production: blending with higher alcohols, FT-IR, TGA, DSC, and NMR characterizations. Biomass Conv. Bioref. 12, 577–596 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-020-00866-z

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