Use of alternative plant and animal protein blends, in place of fishmeal, in diets for juvenile totoaba, Totoaba macdonaldi
Introduction
In the rapid expansion of aquaculture, fishmeal (FM) has been the preferred source of protein for aquafeeds, especially those formulated for carnivorous species, due to its balanced content of amino acids (AA), high protein content, adequate fatty acid composition, high palatability, and lack of anti-nutritional factors (National Research Council (NRC), 2011; FAO, 2018). Unfortunately, the world stocks of forage fish species used to produce FM (e.g., sardine, anchovy, menhaden, etc.) are currently considered fully or overexploited (FAO, 2018), which has limited its availability and increased the price in respond to rising demand from the growing aquaculture sector (Tacon et al., 2011). Thus, it is clear that the aquaculture industry cannot continue to heavily rely on this source of protein. To remedy this situation, scientists and manufacturers of aquafeeds have sought alternative protein sources that, ideally, should be inexpensive, readily available, and of high nutritional value for a more sustainable aquaculture (Jobling, 2016). In this respect, considerable success has been achieved in partial, and sometimes, total replacement of FM by processed animal and plant protein sources, as well as novel proteins, such as microalgae and yeasts (Bandara, 2018).
Soy protein concentrate (SPC) is one of the plant protein feedstuffs most frequently observed to promote acceptable growth of various fish species when used as partial replacement of FM (Salze et al., 2010; Colburn et al., 2012; Quintero et al., 2012; Trejo-Escamilla et al., 2017). Although more expensive, relative to regular soybean meal (SBM), SPC contains reduced levels of anti-nutritional factors (ANFs), such as protease inhibitors and oligosaccharides (Buentello et al., 2015), which explains its positive effect on fish growth performance. The ANFs are deactivated or removed, to a large extent, by subjecting dehulled soybeans to hexane and alcohol extraction along with thermal processes that, at the same time, result in a feedstuff with a crude protein (CP) content (65–67%) similar to that of FM (U.S. Soybean Expert Council (USSEC), 2008). Among protein feedstuffs of animal origin, blood meal (BM) is one of the main terrestrial by-product meals that have been tested in aquaculture. Interestingly, BM has a relatively high CP content (88%), but its quality depends on the composition and freshness of the raw material, as well as on the processing conditions, which generally entail thermal treatment and the extraction of moisture and fat (Bureau et al., 1999; Hardy, 2006; National Research Council (NRC), 2011). Nevertheless, BM has been used successfully to partially replace FM in the diets of various carnivorous fish species, such as Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) (Nogueira et al., 2012; Hatlen et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2015). With regard to microalgae, Arthrospira sp., commercially known as Spirulina, is a blue-green filamentous cyanobacteria with high nutritional value that can be used in place of FM in balanced feeds. It contains high levels of CP (60–65%), including all essential AA, β-carotenes, antioxidants, and vitamins (Guedes et al., 2015). With a relatively high cost in the market, though less than that of FM, the use of this microalgae has proven effective in promoting growth and immune responses, when used as a partial or complete replacement of FM in diets of several fish species (Perez-Velazquez et al., 2018; Shah et al., 2018; Perez-Velazquez et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2019). However, caution must be exercised when using alternative feedstuffs singly as FM replacements, for possible nutritional imbalances may arise, such as increased levels of ANFs, essential AA deficiencies, variable quality or reduced digestibility. In order to overcome this, previous studies have shown that blends of alternative protein feedstuffs can be a suitable option to ensure a more balanced nutrition that promotes better biological performance and health of fish (Cabral et al., 2011; Burr et al., 2012; Jirsa et al., 2014; Monge-Ortiz et al., 2018).
Totoaba (Totoaba macdonaldi) is a carnivorous fish endemic to the Gulf of California. With excellent traits as a candidate species for aquaculture, an increasing number of nutritional studies have been conducted with totoaba in recent years (Minjarez-Osorio et al., 2012; Bañuelos-Vargas et al., 2014; Galaviz et al., 2015; Mata-Sotres et al., 2015; Perez-Velazquez et al., 2017). Some studies have explored the use of SBM, SPC, and poultry by-product meal in the diet for this species (Badillo-Zapata et al., 2016; Trejo-Escamilla et al., 2017; Fuentes-Quesada et al., 2018), but research on the use of a wider variety of protein feedstuffs alternative to FM is still needed. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the partial and total replacement of FM by blends of alternative plant and animal protein feedstuffs in balanced feeds for totoaba.
Section snippets
Fish rearing and culture system
Totoaba juveniles were obtained from the Center for Reproduction of Marine Species of the State of Sonora (CREMES), Kino Bay, Sonora, Mexico, and transported to the Wet Laboratory of Aquaculture Nutrition of the Kino Bay Experiment Station (KBES), University of Sonora at Kino Bay, Sonora, Mexico. Fish were maintained in one 10-m3 fiberglass raceway for one week for acclimation to laboratory conditions. At an overall mean weight (± standard deviation, S.D.) of 8.0 ± 0.5 g, they were transferred
Growth performance and feed utilization indices
Significant effects of the level of FM replacement were detected. Survival was deeply affected, with mass mortalities occurring on the 17th day of culture for fish fed diets with 100% FM replacement (no fishmeal) regardless of the protein blend. These tanks were terminated and the data were not incorporated into the statistical analyses. However, for fish fed the diets with 33% and 66% FM replacement, high survival rates (91.55 and 89.11%, respectively) were observed at the end of the trial,
Discussion
There is no doubt that the mass mortalities occurring on the 17th day of the present feeding trial were a direct result of total FM replacement by the three blends. Coincidentally, Badillo-Zapata et al. (2016) reported mass mortalities on day 15 of culture for totoaba when 100% of dietary FM was replaced by poultry by-product meal. For this dietary treatment, the authors replaced all fish with new fish fed the baseline diet and carried on with the experiment, but obtained low survival and poor
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the TEXAS A&M-CONACYT Collaborative Research Grant Program No. 2017-026 (S). Funding for Mr. Villanueva-Gutiérrez was partly provided by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT, Mexico). The authors would like to thank the Center for Reproduction of Marine Species of Sonora State (C.R.E.M.E.S.), Kino Bay, Sonora, Mexico, for donating the experimental fish. The mention of trademarks or proprietary products does not constitute an endorsement of the product
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Replacing fishmeal protein with blended alternatives alters growth, feed utilization, protein deposition and gut micromorphology of humpback grouper, Cromileptes altivelis
2022, Animal Feed Science and TechnologyCitation Excerpt :The low WG % observed in fish fed R84 of this study elucidated that the high dietary FM protein replacement level (84 %) by the blended proteins had a negative effect on fish growth performance. Villanueva-Gutiérrez et al. (2020) also demonstrated that high levels (66 % or 100 %) of FM replacements with blended animal and plant proteins (Arthrospira sp. meal, blood meal and soy protein concentrate) could reduce the growth of totoaba. It was notable that the proportion of FM replacements could not be increased when the protein source used had undesirable characteristics, such as reduced digestibility, the presence of ANFs and other factors (Monge-Ortiz et al., 2018).
Incorporating hydrolyzed soy protein or black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae meal into feeds for Totoaba macdonaldi
2022, AquacultureCitation Excerpt :A similar observation was reported for juvenile blunt snout bream Megalobrama amblycephala fed cottonseed meal protein hydrolysate (Yuan et al., 2020). This may be the reason, at least in part, for the impaired growth of totoaba fed 25% dietary HSP in the present study, although at reduced levels ANFs still present in HSP may also have contributed to the result, since totoaba has been shown to be sensitive to ANFs from conventional soybean meal and even from processed soybean products with reduced levels of ANFs, such as soy protein concentrate (SPC), which, at moderate and high levels, have produced enteritis and impaired protein utilization (Trejo-Escamilla et al., 2017; Fuentes-Quesada et al., 2018; Villanueva-Gutiérrez et al., 2020a; Perez-Velazquez et al., 2021). Sensitivity to ANFs from soy-derived products has been well documented in other carnivorous marine fishes (Kumar et al., 2020).
First report on the swim bladder index, proximate composition, and fatty acid analysis of swim bladder from cultured Totoaba macdonaldi fed compound aquafeeds
2021, Aquaculture ReportsCitation Excerpt :However, significant effects of dietary SPC were detected for MH, in which, compared to MH of fish fed the control diet (1.53 µm), progressively higher values were recorded as the inclusion level of dietary SPC increased (1.61 and 1.82 µm for 30% and 60% dietary SPC, respectively) (Table 6). The proximate composition of totoaba swim bladder was characterized by a high crude protein content (36.98–39.42% on a wet-weight basis), relative to whole body (17.74–19.15%), and also relative to body organs and tissues reported recently in other studies for this species, for instance, liver (10.42–13.87%) and muscle (18.60–19.68%) (Maldonado-Othón et al., 2020; Villanueva-Gutiérrez et al., 2020). Remarkably, high crude protein content seems to be a common characteristic of the swim bladder, with values as high as 80% crude protein, of not only other sciaenids, such as Cynoscion acoupa and Protonibea diacanthus, but also of non-sciaenid fish, for example, Congresox talabonoides (Muraenesocidae), Sciades proops (Ariidae), and Lates niloticus (Latidae) (Wen et al., 2016a, 2016b).