Abstract
Parental care increases offspring survival, but may impose costs by decreasing adult survival or mating opportunities. Because individuals have limited resources, time allocation and risk decisions are expected to vary according to the care status and threat faced by parents. Herein, we evaluated the sources of mortality of clutches of the glassfrog Hyalinobatrachium cappellei and the importance of paternal care for offspring survival. We also compared time allocation patterns and antipredator behavior between attending and non-attending males. Using naturalistic observations and field experiments with different dummy predators, we hypothesized that (1) offspring survival would be positively correlated with paternal care; (2) attending males would spend most of the time caring for the embryos, while non-attending males would spend more time foraging and calling; (3) attending males would prioritize their own survival when facing a high risk of predation, even with negative impacts on offspring survival. Main sources of embryo mortality included predation and dehydration, and offspring survivorship was almost totally dependent on paternal care. Although non-attending males spent more time calling and foraging, attending males also called and were able to attract females and increase their mating success. However, contrary to our prediction, we found that attending males were more risk-tolerant, increasing not only offspring survival but also their mortality risk. Our findings highlight the importance of the predation risk level on parents’ decisions and that the reproductive status may play a significant role in determining antipredator behavior and mating success in glassfrog males.
Significance statement
In species with parental care, parents face a trade-off between investment in current offspring survival and chances of future reproduction. Hence, it is expected that natural selection will favor parents that attend offspring without incurring in higher risk of predation. We investigated time allocation patterns and behavioral responses to different levels of threat in a glassfrog with paternal care. Using field observations and predation experiments, we found that attending and non-attending males of Hyalinobatrachium cappellei behaved differently depending on their care status and level of threat. Males were more likely to tolerate high risks only when they were caring for clutches. We also found that the commitment of males to continue caring resulted in higher offspring survival. Parental care behavior increased not only larvae hatching success, but also matting success of attending males, suggesting that paternal care might be under sexual selection.
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All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
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Acknowledgments
We thank the staff members of the Fazenda São Nicolau and the Acervo Biológico da Amazônia Meridional – ABAM, for the logistic support in the field. We are also grateful to Célio F.B. Haddad and Nadya C. Pupin, from the Laboratório de Herpetologia, UNESP-Rio Claro, São Paulo, for providing us the necessary equipment used during the fieldwork. To Roy W. McDiarmid for valuable discussions and two anonymous reviewers provided suggestions that improved the manuscript.
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This research was funded by the São Paulo Research Foundation, FAPESP (grant #2016/05070-5).
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AVA and CPAP designed the original research questions. AVA collected field data, performed all statistical analyses, and drafted the manuscript. All authors substantially edited and approved the final manuscript.
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Field observations and behavioral experiments were carried out in accordance with the Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour guidelines and the Ethics Committee on Animal Use of the Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Rio Claro, São Paulo state, Brazil (protocol number 9457) and the Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade (ICMBio, license number 51479-4).
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Valencia-Aguilar, A., de Jesus Rodrigues, D. & Prado, C.P. Male care status influences the risk-taking decisions in a glassfrog. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 74, 84 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-020-02869-2
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-020-02869-2