ReviewUltrasound-assisted electrodeposition and synthesis of alloys and composite materials: A review
Graphical abstract
Introduction
The electrodeposited coatings include nanostructured materials with multilayer and ceramic particles in the metallic, or polymeric matrix. The matrix is usually composed of metal, alloy, ceramic, or polymer, while the particles may have a spheroidal, layered, plate-like, or core-coated shape, with a size order from sub-millimeters to nanometers [1]. These composite coatings are anticorrosive, wear-resistant, hydrophobicity, and have a good tribological performance that make them applicable in the manufacturing process of many industrial sectors [2]. Recent studies have demonstrated the diverse applications of the composite materials [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8], as illustrated in Fig. 1. The development of nanometer-scale composites with different morphological structures, composition, and size distribution, can be obtained through the application of acoustic cavitation originated by ultrasound treatment.
Galvanized coatings can significantly improve their physical properties such as hardness, resistance to wear and corrosion when the particles are dispersed in the solution [9]. Promising novel coatings have been developed in last years. Some studies have sought to focus on different operational parameters during the electrodeposition process to increase the concentration of particles in the coating [10]. However, the increase in particle concentrationand the decrease in the concentration of electroactive species were discarded due to instability of the dispersion at high concentrations and problems related to mass transport affected by reduced conductivity of the solution [11]. The agglomeration of particles leads to an increase in the sedimentation rate, impairing thermophysical properties, such as viscosity and thermal conductivity, and pressure drop [12].
The use of ultrasound technology has shown high potential for this purpose, since it can prevent particle agglomeration, promoting uniform surfaces with higher particle content [13]. Also, the use of ultrasound during the electrodeposition leads to the size reduction of porous structures through the hydrogen absorption in the deposit, as well as the formation of a homogeneous microstructure, composed of fine and crystalline granules, with uniform distribution. Ultrasonic waves can play a relevant role in the orientation of crystals and stability related to adhesion between the film and the substrate [14]. This emerging technology has been applied in the fabrication of materials for drug delivery [15], scaffolds for gingival cells growth [16]; environmental process of wastewater treatment [17]; food sector, for the extraction of compounds [18] and dairy products processing [19], and in the gas production, such as H2 [20].
During the process, acoustic waves are propagated in the liquid medium, causing the vibrational movement of compression and expansion of the molecular structure. Therefore, the distance between the molecules varies according to the oscillation. If this vibrational intensity reaches the state in which the molecular structure becomes unstable, the formation of bubbles occurs, generating the acoustic cavitation phenomenon [21]. Thus, the application of ultrasound in liquid media can alter physical and chemical aspects through the generation of turbulent convection and temperature increase due to the formation and subsequent collapse of bubbles [22]. These changes decrease the thickness of the diffusion layer and improve the mass transport, degassing the electrode surface, and promoting an increase in the reaction rate and generation of hydroxyl radicals [23]. The basic forms of emitting ultrasonic waves and promoting changes in the material can occur directly by converting mechanical energy into acoustic from the transducer to the probe, inducing vibrations in the material; and indirectly, through the cavitation induced in the liquid medium, by the propagation of acoustic waves [24]. However, the influence of ultrasound process parameters on the electrodeposition of composites and metal alloys was poorly studied and requires further studies. In this context, this review presents trends in the application of ultrasound technology in the electrodeposition of metallic coatings and how this emerging technology could improve the technological properties of these materials.
Section snippets
Fundamentals of ultrasound technology
The phenomenon of acoustic cavitation occurs due to the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the liquid medium, increasing its pressure and temperature, as shown in Fig. 2. Gaseous nuclei in the liquid initiate the cavitation bubbles, which are subsequently enlarged and expanded until a consequent rupture, generating shock waves, microturbulence, and microjets [25]. Physical forces such as vibration, rise of experimental temperature from 2000 to 10,000 K, and agitation are generated by acoustic
Use of ultrasound in electrodeposition process
Ultrasonic waves in a liquid medium promote the acoustic cavitation, in which the mechanical wave is propagated in cycles that generate positive and negative pressure. High energy promotes the formation of bubbles during negative pressure cycles. When the microbubble reaches a critical size, it collapses and ruptures [30]. This point is known as a hot spot, which can reach high pressures and temperatures. The events arising from this formation of bubbles are the basis for the application of
Influence of ultrasound process parameters on the electrodeposition of the coatings
Although the previous section discussed the application of ultrasound treatment during the electrodeposition process as well as its effects on particle dispersion, morphology and microstructure, and improvement in corrosion resistance. Ultrasonic conditions, such as type of ultrasound, frequency and power ultrasonic, and equipment coupling region still are scarce. These process conditions are crucial for understanding and suggesting changes in the ultrasound configuration to achieve beneficial
Patents on the deposition process using ultrasound
The method of depositing material on a substrate under ultrasonic conditions has been few patented for the past two decades. McLamore and Taguchi [103] patented the method of pulsed sonoelectrodeposition and sonoelectropolymerization, with the application of a galvanic potential pulse alternating with the sonication pulse, to form a plurality of structures. A pause in the processing time can optionally be included between the coating pulse and the sonication pulse. Nanoparticles were produced
Critical observations and economic approaches
The main process variables affecting the incorporation of particles and the formation of nanostructured materials are ultrasound power, frequency, processing time, and mode of sonication. The suitable incorporation of particles in the metallic matrix is achieved through the de-agglomeration caused by ultrasonic waves. However, most studies carried out to date have not evaluated the synergy between process variables using ultrasound technology. The diameter of the probe is rarely described, as
Conclusions
The article reviewed the technological applications of ultrasound-assisted electrodeposition from 2014 to 2019. The effects of acoustic cavitation on particle de-agglomeration, as well as the impacts on the properties of composites, such as hardness and corrosion resistance, were discussed. The sonoelectrodeposition has valuable potential for transforming irregular surfaces into uniform and smooth surfaces through ultrasonic cavitation in the electrolyte. This review showed that, in recent
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001.
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