Liquid phase microextraction strategies and their application in the determination of endocrine disruptive compounds in food samples
Introduction
Tissues are made up of fundamental cells, and a collection of specific tissues form an organ. There are several organs in the body, and these are responsible for communications that control the normal function of the human body. Organs act as receptors of hormones that are released into the bloodstream by several glands that come together to form the endocrine system [1]. Each gland performs a specific role or acts together with others in a coordinated approach to relay messages to targeted sites in the body. Some major glands in the human body include the hypothalamus, adrenal, thyroid, pituitary and parathyroid, and they control processes such as sexual characteristics, growth, metabolism and other day-to-day functions [2,3]. The slightest disturbance to the production, transport or reception of hormones can result in dire health issues over a short or prolonged period.
There are several natural and synthetic chemicals that have been identified to be capable of disrupting the balance of the hormonal system, and these are referred to as endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) [4]. The European Commission has classified these chemicals into categories based on their known endocrine disruptive activities. Category 1 refers to chemicals that have explicit evidence of disrupting an endocrine activity, and category 2 refers to chemicals suspected to be EDCs based on published works or reported by other regulatory institutions [5]. The awareness of EDCs came to bear when researchers started to observe diverse changes in different aquatic species that had their habitations situated at the immediate effluent site (outfall) of sewage treatment facilities [6,7]. Inefficient treatment/removal of EDCs from wastewater (household and industrial origins), surface water runoff from agricultural sites, and accidental chemical spillage are the main sources that contaminate environmental resources [8].
EDCs affect the normal function of the endocrine system when the production, release, transport or reception of hormones are interrupted, leading to dire health effects. Some common examples of EDCs are pesticides, alkylphenols and bisphenol A, phthalates, pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), hormones, organotin compounds (OTCs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and heavy metals. Table 1 categorizes some major EDC chemical groups into natural and synthetic sources and gives examples of each group. Exposure to EDCs could result in acute or chronic health effects depending on the concentration, and the health effects may be synergistic or additive due to the presence of other compounds in the medium [9]. Acute health effects are mostly observed in occupational exposure and some symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, irritation of the eyes, temporal blindness, asthma and blisters [10]. Chronic effects include diabetes, infertility, early puberty, obesity, neurological effects, developmental effects, and cancers of the breast ovary and prostate [9]. The mechanisms of EDC toxicity or carcinogenicity in organisms are very complex, but efforts are being made to increase understanding of these mechanisms and how to prevent health effects through basic lifestyle changes [11].
Section snippets
EDC determination techniques and limitations
Gas chromatography (GC) and liquid chromatography (LC) are the two main chromatographic systems employed for separation of EDCs. A wide range of detection systems can be coupled to these chromatographic systems to enhance the selectivity and specificity of determinations.
Extraction strategies
Sample preparation is a very important step in sample analysis because it has a direct impact on the outcome of the entire analysis. A carelessly done sample preparation process does not only affect the trueness (accuracy) and repeatability (precision) of results, but also introduces contaminants that could cause harm to instrumental components [23]. The type of sample preparation method employed must therefore be able to separate the analyte(s) of interest from its matrix, and recover an
Conclusions
Liquid phase microextraction is a very flexible analytical sample preparation method that can be coupled with various agitation methods (vortex, ultrasonic, mechanical) and instrumental detection systems (GC, LC, AAS, ICP). Its flexibility also allows simple modification of existing methods to further enhance extraction efficiency and overall greenness of the method. For the relatively less sensitive instruments, LPME methods provide sufficient analyte enhancement to enable them perform
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Dotse Selali Chormey: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Writing - review & editing. Buse Tuğba Zaman: Methodology, Validation, Writing - original draft. Nursu Aylin Kasa: Methodology, Validation, Writing - original draft. Sezgin Bakırdere: Supervision, Project administration.
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