Abstract
Hydraulic head and groundwater age data are effective in building understanding of groundwater systems. Yet their joint role in detecting and characterising low-permeability geological structures, i.e. hydrogeologic barriers such as faults and dykes, has not been widely studied. Here, numerical flow and transport models, using MODFLOW-NWT and MT3D-USGS, were developed with different hydrogeologic barrier configurations in a hypothetical aquifer. Computed hydraulic head and groundwater age distributions were compared to those without a barrier. The conjoint use of these datasets helps in detecting vertically-oriented barriers. Two forms of recharge were compared: (1) applied across the entire aquifer surface (uniform), and (2) applied to the upstream part of the aquifer (upgradient). The hydraulic head distribution is significantly impacted by a barrier that penetrates the aquifer’s full vertical thickness. This barrier also perturbs the groundwater age distribution when upgradient recharge prevails; however, with uniform recharge, groundwater age is not successful in detecting the barrier. When a barrier is buried, such as by younger sediment, hydraulic head data also do not clearly identify the barrier. Groundwater age data could, on the other hand, prove to be useful if sampled at depth-specific intervals. These results are important for the detection and characterisation of hydrogeologic barriers, which may play a significant role in the compartmentalisation of groundwater flow, spring dynamics, and drawdown and recovery associated with groundwater extraction.
Résumé
Les données piézométriques et de datation des eaux souterraines permettent de mieux comprendre les systèmes hydrogéologiques. Pourtant, leur rôle conjoint dans la détection et la caractérisation des structures géologiques à faible perméabilité, les barrières hydrauliques telles que les failles et dykes, n’est que très peu étudié. Ici, des modèles numériques de flux et de transport, utilisant MODFLOW-NWT et MT3D-USGS, ont été élaborés avec différentes configurations de barrières hydrauliques dans un aquifère hypothétique. Les distributions des charges hydrauliques et des âges des eaux souterraines modélisés ont été comparés à celles en l’absence de barrière. L’utilisation conjointe de ces ensembles de données aide à détecter les barrières verticales. Deux formes de recharge ont été comparées: (1) la première est appliquée sur toute la surface de l’aquifère (uniforme) et (2) la deuxième est appliquée seulement sur la partie amont de l’aquifère (amont). La distribution de la charge hydraulique est fortement impactée par une barrière qui pénètre toute l’épaisseur verticale de l’aquifère. Cette barrière perturbe également la distribution des âges des eaux souterraines lorsque la recharge en amont prévaut. Cependant, avec une recharge uniforme, l’âge des eaux souterraines ne permet pas de détecter de barrière. Lorsqu’une barrière est recouverte (par des sédiments plus récents par exemple), les données piézométriques ne permettent pas non plus d’identifier clairement cette barrière. Par contre, les données de datation des eaux souterraines se révèlent utiles si elles sont échantillonnées à des intervalles de profondeur spécifiques. Ces résultats sont importants pour la détection et la caractérisation des barrières hydrauliques, qui peuvent jouer un rôle important dans le compartimentage des circulations des eaux souterraines, la dynamique des sources, le rabattement et la remontée des niveaux piézométriques associés à l’exploitation des eaux souterraines.
Resumen
Los datos de altura hidráulica y de edad del agua subterránea son efectivos en la construcción de la comprensión de los sistemas de agua subterránea. Sin embargo, su papel conjunto en la detección y caracterización de estructuras geológicas de baja permeabilidad, es decir, barreras hidrogeológicas como fallas y diques, no ha sido ampliamente estudiado. Aquí se desarrollaron modelos numéricos de flujo y transporte, utilizando MODFLOW-NWT y MT3D-USGS, con diferentes configuraciones de barreras hidrogeológicas en un hipotético acuífero. Se compararon las distribuciones calculadas de la altura hidráulica y la edad del agua subterránea con las que no tenían una barrera. El uso conjunto de estos conjuntos de datos ayuda a detectar las barreras de orientación vertical. Se compararon dos formas de recarga: (1) aplicarse en toda la superficie del acuífero (uniforme), y (2) aplicarse en la parte de aguas arriba del acuífero (gradiente arriba). La distribución de la altura hidráulica es impactada significativamente por una barrera vertical que penetra todo el espesor del acuífero. Esta barrera también perturba la distribución de la edad del agua subterránea cuando prevalece la recarga de nutrientes. Sin embargo, con una recarga uniforme, la edad del agua subterránea no tiene éxito en la detección de la barrera. Cuando una barrera es enterrada (como por ejemplo por sedimentos más jóvenes), los datos de la altura hidráulica tampoco identifican claramente la barrera. Por otra parte, los datos sobre la edad de las aguas subterráneas podrían resultar útiles si se toman muestras a intervalos específicos de profundidad. Estos resultados son importantes para la detección y caracterización de barreras hidrogeológicas, que pueden desempeñar un papel importante en la compartimentalización del flujo de agua subterránea, la dinámica de los manantiales y la reducción y recuperación asociadas con la extracción de agua subterránea.
摘要
水头和地下水年龄数据对建立地下水系统的理解有效。然而, 联合使用这些数据来探知和表征低渗透性地质结构(如断层和堤坝等水文地质屏障)尚未得到广泛研究。因此, 在假设的含水层中, 使用MODFLOW-NWT和MT3D-USGS建立了具有不同水文地质屏障构造的水流和运移的数值模型。将计算出的水头和地下水年龄分布与无屏障结果进行了比较。这些数据集的联合使用有助于探知垂直方向的障碍。比较了两种补给形式:(1)应用于整个含水层表面(均匀), 以及(2)应用于含水层的上游部分(反梯度)。水头分布受到穿透含水层整个垂直厚度屏障的显著影响。当反梯度的补给存在时, 屏障也会影响地下水的年龄分布。但是, 如果均匀补给时, 则地下水年龄无法成功探知到屏障。当屏障被掩埋时(例如被较年轻的沉积物所掩盖), 水头数据也不能清楚地识别出屏障。另一方面, 如果以特定深度的间隔进行采样, 则地下水年龄数据可能会很有用。这些结果对于水文地质屏障的探知和表征很重要, 这些屏障可能在划分地下水流、泉动力以及与地下水开采相关的降深和恢复中发挥重要作用。
Resumo
Dados de carga hidráulica e de datação de águas subterrâneas são eficazes para a compreensão dos sistemas de águas subterrâneas. No entanto, seu papel na detecção e caracterização de estruturas geológicas de baixa permeabilidade, ou seja, barreiras hidrogeológicas como falhas e diques, ainda não foi amplamente estudado. Aqui, modelos números de fluxo e transporte, usando o MODFLOW-NWT e MT3D-USGS, foram desenvolvidos com diferentes configurações de barreiras hidrogeológicas em um aquífero hipotético. As distribuições de carga hidráulica e idade das águas subterrâneas computadas foram comparadas àquelas sem barreira. O uso conjunto desses dados ajuda na detecção de barreiras verticalmente orientadas. Duas formas de recarga foram comparadas: (1) aplicada em toda superfície do aquífero (uniforme), e (2) aplicada à parte a montante do aquífero (gradiente ascendente). A distribuição da carga hidráulica é significativamente impactada por uma barreira que penetra toda a espessura vertical do aquífero. Essa barreira também perturba a distribuição da idade das águas subterrâneas quando a recarga de gradiente ascendente prevalece. Entretanto, com a recarga uniforme, a idade das águas subterrâneas não consegue detectar a barreira. Quando uma barreira é enterrada (como por sedimentos mais jovens), os dados da carga hidráulica também não identificam claramente a barreira. A idade das águas subterrâneas pode, por outro lado, revelar-se úteis se amostrados em intervalos específicos de profundidade. Esses resultados são importantes para a detecção e caracterização de barreiras hidrogeológicas, que podem desempenhar um papel significativo na compartimentação do fluxo das águas subterrâneas, dinâmicas de nascentes e na retirada e recuperação associadas à extração de águas subterrâneas.
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Acknowledgements
This work was undertaken as a part of a collaborative project between the National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training (NCGRT) and Rio Tinto Iron Ore. The corresponding author would like to thank the United States Geological Survey for hosting her as an exchange scholar. We are grateful to Jeff Starn, as well as two anonymous reviewers, for their helpful comments.
Funding
Funding was provided by the Australian Government Research Training Program, the Australian Research Council, through Linkage Grant LP150100395 and by Rio Tinto Iron Ore.
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Marshall, S.K., Cook, P.G., Konikow, L.F. et al. Conjoint use of hydraulic head and groundwater age data to detect hydrogeologic barriers. Hydrogeol J 28, 1003–1019 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-019-02095-9
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-019-02095-9