Abstract
Forest structures may be analyzed by considering both spatial and non-spatial aspects. These aspects are generally considered independently with little attention focusing on their association. However, the relationships between spatial and non-spatial structures may aid in explaining the characteristics of forests from various perspectives. In this paper, we analyzed the spatial structures of a mixed pine-oak forest with different-sized trees and the relationships among stand spatial structural parameters. This forest, located in the Nanpan River Basin in Southwest China, was in the early stage of succession. Our results showed that: (1) most species populations and trees of different sizes were nearly randomly distributed; (2) the degree of mixture gradually increased with an increase in individual plant size; (3) dominance increased with increasing individual size and could be well modeled by a negative exponential function; (4) there were no clear differences in mixture or distribution patterns among small-, medium- and large-sized trees in vertical layers, but large-sized trees were usually more dominant than small- and medium-sized trees; and (5) the distribution patterns of trees of different sizes had no association with species mixing or dominance, although there was a significant correlation between the degree of mixing and dominance. These findings indicate that tree size directly relates to the non-spatial structure of forests while also predicting their spatial structure characteristics accurately.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Alessandrini A, Biondi F, Filippo AD, Ziaco E, Piovesan G (2011) Tree size distribution at increasing spatial scales converges to the rotated sigmoid curve in two old-growth beech stands of the Italian Apennines. For Ecol Manag 262:1950–1962
An H, Hui G, Zheng X, Zhang T, Hu Y, Meng Q (2005) Study on the spatial structure of broad-leaved Korean pine forest in the different growth stage. Acta Sci Univ NeiMongol 36(6):714–718
Anonymous (1960) Preliminary studies on regeneration and final felling of Pinus yunnanensis Franchet. Sci Silvae Sin 1:44–54
Bagchi R, Henrys PA, Brown PE, Burslem DFRP, Diggle PJ, Gunatilleke CVS, Gunatilleke IAUN, Kassim AR, Law R, Noor S, Valencia RL (2011) Spatial patterns reveal negative density dependence and habitat association in tropical trees. Ecology 92(9):1723–1729
Buongiorno J, Mitchie BR (1980) A matrix model of uneven-aged forest management. For Sci 26(4):609–625
Chai Z, Sun C, Wang D, Liu W, Zhang C (2016) Spatial structure and dynamics of predominant populations in a virgin old-growth oak forest in the Qinling Mountains, China. Scand J For Res 32(1):19–29
Condit R, Ashton PS, Baker P, Bunyavejchewin S, Gunatilleke S, Gunatilleke N, Hubbell SP, Foster SP, Itoh RB, LaFrankie A, Lee JV, Losos E, Manokaran N, Sukumar R, Yamankura T (2000) Spatial patterns in the distribution of tropical tree species. Science 288:1414–1418
Fan J, Zhao X, Wang J, Zhang C, He J, Xia F (2012) Spatial patterns of dominant species in a subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest in Jiulian Mountain Jiangxi Province, China. Acta Ecol Sin 32(9):2729–2739
Fernandez C, Voiriot S, Mévy J-P, Vila B, Ormeño E, Dupouyet S, Bousquet-Mélou A (2008) Regeneration failure of Pinushalepensis Mill.: the role of autotoxicity and some abiotic environmental parameters. For Ecol Manag 255:2928–2936
Franklin J, Keppel G, Webb EL, Seamon JO, Rey SJ, Steadman DW, Wiser SK, Drake DR (2013) Dispersal limitation, speciation, environmental filtering and niche differentiation influence forest tree communities in West Polynesia. J Biogeogr 40:988–999
Getzin S, Dean C, He F, Trofymow JA, Wiegand K, Wiegand T (2006) Spatial patterns and competition of tree species in a Douglas-fir chronosequence on Vancouver Island. Ecography 29:671–682
Graz FP (2004) The behaviour of the species mingling index Msp in relation to species dominance and dispersion. Eur J For Res 123:87–92
Guo X, Liu W, Zhang S, Lü X, Shi X, Li A (2014) Spatial structure characteristics of Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata primeval forest in Xiaolongshan forest area. J Northwest A & F Univ 42(11):1–8
Guo Y, Wang B, Xiang W, Ding T, Lu S, Huang Y, Huang P, Li D, Li X (2015) Spatial distribution of tree species in a tropical karst seasonal rainforest in Nonggang, Guangxi, southern China. Biodivers Sci 23(2):183–191
Hao Z, Zhang J, Song B, Ye J, Li B (2007) Vertical structure and spatial associations of dominant tree species in an old-growth temperate forest. For Ecol Manag 252:1–11
Hardy OJ, Sonké B (2004) Spatial pattern analysis of tree species distribution in a tropical rain forest of Cameroon: assessing the role of limited dispersal and niche differentiation. For Ecol Manag 197:191–202
Hui G, Gadow K (2003) Quantitative analysis of forest spatial structure. China Science and Technology Press, Beijing, pp 6–62
Hui G, Wang Y, Zhang G, Zhao Z, Bai C, Liu W (2018) A novel approach for assessing the neighborhood competition in two different aged forests. For Ecol Manag 422:49–58
Hui G, Zhang G, Zhao Z, Yang A (2019) Methods of forest structure research: a review. Curr For Rep 5:142–154
JanÍk D, Adam D, Hort L, Král K, Šamonil P, Unar P, Vrška T (2014) Tree spatial patterns of Abies alba and Fagus sylvatica in the Western Carpathians over 30 years. Eur J For Res 133:1015–1028
Johann K (1982). Der A–Wert ein objektier Parameter zur Bestimmung der Freistellungsstärke von Zentralbäumen. Tagungsbericht, Deutscher Verband Forstlicher Versuchsanstalten—Sektion Ertragskunde Weibersbrunn, pp 146–158
Keren S, Diaci J, Motta R, Govedar Z (2017) Stand structural complexity of mixed old-growth and adjacent selection forests in the Dinaric Mountains of Bosnia and Herzegovina. For Ecol Manag 400:531–541
Kint V (2005) Structural development in ageing temperate Scots pine stands. For Ecol Manag 214:237–250
Kint V, Lust N, Ferris R, Olsthoorn AFM (2000) Quantification of forest stand structure applied to Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L) forests. Investigación Agraria: Sistemasy Recursos Forestales, Fuera de Series 1:147–163
Kint V, Meirvenne MV, Nachtergale L, Geuden G, Lust N (2003) Spatial methods for quantifying forest stand structure development: a comparison between nearest-neighbor indices and variogram analysis. For Sci 49:36–49
Kuuluvainen T, Penttinen A, Leinonen K, Nygren M (1996) Statistical opportunities for comparing stand structural heterogeneity in managed and primeval forests: an example from boreal spruce forests in Southern Finland. Silva Fenn 30:315–328
Lexerød NL, Eid T (2006) An evaluation of different diameter diversity indices based on criteria related to forest management planning. For Ecol Manag 222:17–28
Li Y, Hui G, Zhao Z, Hu Y (2012) The bivariate distribution characteristics of spatial structure in natural Korean pine broad-leaved forest. J Veg Sci 23(10):1180–1190
Li Y, Ye S, Hui G, Hu Y, Zhao Z (2014a) Spatial structure of timber harvested according to structure-based forest management. For Ecol Manag 322:106–116
Li Y, Hui G, Zhao Z, Hu Y, Ye S (2014b) Spatial structural characteristics of three hardwood species in Korean pine broad-leaved forest—validating the bivariate distribution of structural parameters from the point of tree population. For Ecol Manag 314:17–25
Li Y, Hui G, Yu S, Luo Y, Yao X, Ye S (2017a) Nearest neighbour relationships within Pinus yunnanensis var. tenuifolia forests along the Nanpan River, China. iForest 10:746–753
Li Y, Hui G, Wang H, Zhang G, Ye S (2017b) Selection priority for harvested trees according to stand structural indices. Forest 10(3):561–566
Li Y, He J, Yu S, Zhu D, Wang H, Ye S (2019) Spatial structure of the vertical layers in a subtropical secondary forest 57a after clear-cutting. iForest 12:442–450
Linder P, Elfving B, Zackrisson O (1997) Stand structure and successional trends in virgin boreal forest reserves in Sweden. For Ecol Manag 98:17–33
Lü X, Yang S, Liu W, Guo X, Li A, Yuan Y (2015) Analysis of spatial structure characteristics based on diameter class of trees in primeval Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata community in the forest area of Xiaolong Mountain, Gansu Province. J Beijing For Univ 37(5):11–18
Mcintire EJB, Fajardo A (2009) Beyond description: the active and effective way to infer processes from spatial patterns. Ecology 90(1):46–56
Ni R, Baiketuerhan Y, Zhang C, Zhao X, Gadow K (2014) Analysing structural diversity in two temperate forests in northeastern China. For Ecol Manag 316:139–147
O’Hara KL (2007). Integrating dynamics into management of complex forests: seeking balance in an unbalanced world. In: Conference: complex stand structures and associated dynamics: measurement indices and modelling approaches, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada, p 20
Oheimb G, Westphal C, Tempel H, Härdtle W (2005) Structural pattern of a near-natural beech forest (Fagus sylvatica) (Serrahn, North-east Germany). For Ecol Manag 212:253–263
Paluch J (2006) Factors controlling the regeneration process in unevenly aged silver fir forests: inferences from the spatial pattern of trees. J For Sci 52:510–519
Petritan AM, Biris IA, Merce O, Turcu DO, Petritan IC (2012) Structure and diversity of a natural temperate sessile oak (Quercus petraea L.)–European Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forest. For Ecol Manag 280:140–149
Pommerening A (2002) Approaches to quantifying forest structures. Forestry 75(3):305–324
Potvin C, Dutilleul P (2009) Neighborhood effects and size asymmetric competition in a tree plantation varying in diversity. Ecology 90:321–327
Pukkala T, Lähde E, Laiho O (2009) Growth and yield models for uneven-sized forest stands in Finland. For Ecol Manag 258(3):207–216
Schulte BJ, Buongiorno J (1998) Effects of uneven-aged silviculture on the stand structure, species composition, and economic returns of loblolly pine stands. For Ecol Manag 111(1):83–101
Sezen UU, Chazdon RL, Holsinger KE (2007) Parentage analysis of a regenerating canopy palm population in a tropical second-growth forest. Ecology 88(12):3065–3075
Spies TA (1998) Forest structure: a key to the ecosystem. Northwest Sci 72:34–36
Svensson JS, Jeglum JK (2001) Structure and dynamics of an undisturbed old-growth Norway spruce forest on the rising Bothnian coastline. For Ecol Manag 151:67–79
Wan P, Zhang G, Wang H, Zhao Z, Hu Y, Zhang G, Hui G, Liu W (2019a) Impacts of different forest management methods on the stand spatial structure of a natural Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata forest in Xiaolongshan, China. Ecol Inf 50:86–94
Wan P, Zhang G, Zhao Z, Hu Y, Liu W, Hui G (2019b) Short-term effects of different forest management methods on soil microbial communities of a natural Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata forest in Xiaolongshan, China. Forests 10(2):161
Wehenkel C, Brazão-Protázio JM, Carrillo-Parra A, Martínez-Guerrero JH, Crecente-Campo F (2015) Spatial distribution patterns in the very rare and species-rich Picea chihuahuana tree community (Mexico). PLoS ONE 10(10):e0140442
Westphal C, Tremer N, Oheimb G, Hansen J, Gadow K, Härdtle W (2006) Is the reverse J-shaped diameter distribution universally applicable in European virgin beech forests? For Ecol Manag 223:75–83
Xu H, Hui G, Hu Y, Li C, Lin T, Zhang X, Wu X (2006) Analysis of spatial distribution characteristics of trees with different diameter classes in natural Korean pine broad leaved forest. For Res 19(6):687–691
Zhang J, Chen L, Guo Q, Nie D, Bai X, Jiang Y (1999) Research on the change trend of dominant tree population distribution patterns during development processes of climax forest community. Acta Phytoecol Sin 23:256–268
Zhang G, Wang D, Zhang C, Zhang S, Liu W, Ouyang J (2015) Spatial structure characteristics of secondary pine oak mixed forest community and dominant population in Baihua forest farm of Xiaolongshan. J Northeast For Univ 43(8):40–45
Zhao Z, Liu W, Shi X, Li A, Guo X, Zhang G, Hui G (2015) Structure dynamic of Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata natural forest on Xiaolongshan. For Res 28(6):759–766
Zhu Y, Mi X, Ren H, Ma K (2009) Density dependence is prevalent in a heterogeneous subtropical forest. Oikos 119(1):109–119
Acknowledgements
This paper was financially supported by the National Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 31400542, 31460196), Guangxi Natural Science Foundation (Grant Nos. 2016GXNSFBA380233) and Guangxi special fund project for innovation-driven development (Grant No. AA 17204087-8).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Communicated by David Drew.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Li, Y., He, J., Yu, S. et al. Spatial structures of different-sized tree species in a secondary forest in the early succession stage. Eur J Forest Res 139, 709–719 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-020-01280-w
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10342-020-01280-w