Skip to main content
Log in

Resilience of aquatic systems: Review and management implications

  • Overview
  • Published:
Aquatic Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Our understanding of how ecosystems function has changed from an equilibria-based view to one that recognizes the dynamic, fluctuating, nonlinear nature of aquatic systems. This current understanding requires that we manage systems for resilience. In this review, we examine how resilience has been defined, measured and applied in aquatic systems, and more broadly, in the socioecological systems in which they are embedded. Our review reveals the importance of managing stressors adversely impacting aquatic system resilience, as well as understanding the environmental and climatic cycles and changes impacting aquatic resources. Aquatic resilience may be enhanced by maintaining and enhancing habitat connectivity as well as functional redundancy and physical and biological diversity. Resilience in aquatic socioecological system may be enhanced by understanding and fostering linkages between the social and ecological subsystems, promoting equity among stakeholders, and understanding how the system is impacted by factors within and outside the area of immediate interest. Management for resilience requires implementation of adaptive and preferably collaborative management. Implementation of adaptive management for resilience will require an effective monitoring framework to detect key changes in the coupled socioecological system. Research is needed to (1) develop sensitive indicators and monitoring designs, (2) disentangle complex multi-scalar interactions and feedbacks, and (3) generalize lessons learned across aquatic ecosystems and apply them in new contexts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abson DJ, Fischer J, Leventon J, Jens Newig J, Schomerus T, Vilsmaier U, von Wehrden H, Abernethy P, Ives CD, Jager NW, Lang DJ (2017) Leverage points for sustainability transformation. Ambio 46:30–39

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adler RW (2010) Resilience, restoration, and sustainability: Revising the fundamental principles of the Clean Water Act. Wash Univ J Law Pol 32:139–173

    Google Scholar 

  • Alberti M, Marzluff JM (2004) Ecological resilience in urban ecosystems: linking urban patterns to human and ecological functions. Urban Ecosyst 7:241–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Albins MA, Hixon MA (2013) Worst case scenario: potential long-term effects of invasive predatory lionfish (Pterois volitans) on Atlantic and Caribbean coral-reef communities. Environ Biol Fishes 96:1151–1157

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander S, Aronson J, Whaley O, Lamb D (2016) The relationship between ecological restoration and the ecosystem services concept. Ecol Soc 21:34

    Google Scholar 

  • Allison SD, Martiny JBH (2008) Resistance, resilience, and redundancy in microbial communities. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S 105:11512–11519

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ameli AA, Creed IF (2018) Does wetland location matter when managing wetlands for watershed-scale flood and drought resilience? J Am Water Resour Assoc 55:529–542

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson T, Cartensen J, Hernandez-Garcia E, Duarte CM (2009) Ecological thresholds and regime shifts: approaches to identification. Trends Ecol Evol 24:49–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Angeler DG, Allen CR (2016) Quantifying resilience. J Appl Ecol 53:617–624

    Google Scholar 

  • Angeler DG, Allen CR, Barichievy C, Eason T, Garmestani AS, Graham NAJ, Granholm D, Gunderson LH, Knutson M, Nash KL, Nelson RJ, Nyström M, Spanbauer TL, Stow CA, Sundstrom SM (2016) Management applications of discontinuity theory. J Appl Ecol 53:688–698

    Google Scholar 

  • Angeler DG, Fried-Petersen HB, Allen CR, Garmestani A, Twidwell D, Chuang W-C, Donovan VM, Eason T, Roberts CP, Sundrum SM, Wonkka CL (2019) Adaptive capacity in ecosystems. In: Bohan DA, Dumbrill AJ (eds) Advances in Ecological Research. Academic Press, London, pp 1–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Anthony KRN, Marshall PA, Abdulla A, Beeden R, Bergh C, Black R, Eakin CM, Game ET, Gooch M, Graham NAJ, Green A, Heron SF, van Hooidonk R, Knowland C, Mangubhai S, Marshall N, Maynard JA, McGinnity P, McLeod E, Mumby PJ, Nyström M, Obura D, Oliver J, Possingham HP, Pressey RL, Rowlands GP, Tamelander J, Wachenfeld D, Wear S (2015) Operationalizing resilience for adaptive coral reef management under global environmental change. Glob Change Biol 21:48–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Anthony KRN (2016) Coral reefs under climate change and ocean acidification: challenges and opportunities for management and policy. Annu Rev Environ Resour 41:59–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold CA, Green OO, DeCaro DA, Chase A, Ewa JG (2014) The social-ecological resilience of an eastern urban-suburban watershed: the Anacostia River Basin. Idaho Law Rev 51:29–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Arthington AH, Kennen JG, Stein ED, Webb JA (2018) Recent advances in environmental flows science and water management—innovation in the Anthropocene. Freshw Biol 63:1022–1034

    Google Scholar 

  • Aspin TWH, Khamis K, Matthews TJ, Milner AM, O’Callaghan MJ, Trimmer M, Woodward G, Ledger ME (2018) Extreme drought pushes stream invertebrate communities over functional thresholds. Glob Change Biol 25:230–244

    Google Scholar 

  • Bakker ES, Wood KA, Pagès JF, Veen GF, Christianen MJA, Santamaría L, Nolet BA, Hilt S (2016) Herbivory on freshwater and marine macrophytes: a review and perspective. Aquat Bot 135:18–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayley SE, Creed IF, Sass GZ, Wong AS (2007) Frequent regime shifts in trophic states in shallow lakes on Boreal Plain: Alternative "unstable" states? Limnol Oceanogr 52:2002–2012

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck MW, Heck KL, Able KW, Childers DL, Eggleston DB, Gillanders BM, Halpern B, Hays CG, Hoshino K, Minello TJ, Orth RJ, Sheridan PF, Weinstein MP (2001) The identification, conservation, and management of estuarine and marine nurseries for fish and invertebrates: a better understanding of the habitats that serve as nurseries for marine species and the factors that create site-specific variability in nursery quality will improve conservation and management of these areas. Bioscience 51:633–641

    Google Scholar 

  • Beechie T, Imaki H, Greene J, Wade A, Wu H, Pess G, Roni P, Kimball J, Stanford J, Kiffney P, Mantua N (2013) Restoring salmon habitat for a changing climate. River Res Appl 29:939–960

    Google Scholar 

  • Beisner BE, Haydon DT, Cuddington K (2003) Alternative stable states in ecology. Front Ecol Environ 1:376–382

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell T, Newman JA, Silverman BW, Turner SL, Lilley AK (2005) The contribution of species richness and composition to bacterial services. Nature 436:1157–1160

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beller EE, Spotswood EN, Robinson AH, Anderson MG, Higgs ES, Hobbs RJ, Suding KN, Zavaleta ES, Grenier JL, Grossinger RM (2019) Building ecological resilience in highly modified landscapes. Bioscience 69:80–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Berkes F (2017) Environmental governance for the Anthropocene? Social-ecological systems, resilience, and collaborative learning. Sustainability 9:1232

    Google Scholar 

  • Biggs R, Schlüter M, Biggs D, Bohensky EL, BurnSilver S, Cundill G, Dakos V, Daw TM, Evans LS, Kotschy K, Leitch AM, Meek C, Quinlan A, Raudsepp-Hearne C, Robards MD, Schoon ML, Schultz L, West PC (2012) Toward principles for enhancing the resilience of ecosystem services. Annu Rev Environ Resour 37:421–448

    Google Scholar 

  • Biggs R, Schlüter M, Schoon ML (2015) Principles for Building. Resilience sustaining ecosystem services in social-ecological systems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Birge HE, Allen CR, Garmestani AS, Pope KL (2016) Adaptive management for ecosystem services. J Environ Manag 183:343–352

    Google Scholar 

  • Bisson PA, Dunha JB, Reeves GH (2009) Freshwater ecosystems and resilience of Pacific salmon: habitat management based on natural variation. Ecol Soc 14:45

    Google Scholar 

  • Blodau C, Knorr KH (2006) Experimental inflow of groundwater induces a “biogeochemical regime shift” in iron-rich and acidic sediments. J Geophys Res 111:G02026

    Google Scholar 

  • Bogan MT, Boersma KS, Lytle DA (2015) Resistance and resilience of invertebrate communities to seasonal and supraseasonal drought in arid-land headwater streams. Freshw Biol 60:2547–2558

    Google Scholar 

  • Boerlijst MC, Oudman T, de Roos AM (2013) Catastrophic collapse can occur without early warning: examples of silent catastrophes in structured ecological models. PLoS ONE 8:e62033

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Borja A, Dauer DM, Elliott M, Simenstad CA (2010) Medium- and long-term recovery of estuarine and coastal ecosystems: patterns, rates and restoration effectiveness. Estuaries Coasts 33:1249–1260

    Google Scholar 

  • Bottom DL, Jones KK, Simenstad CA, Smith CL (2009) Reconnecting social and ecological resilience in salmon ecosystems. Ecol Soc 14:5

    Google Scholar 

  • Bozec Y-S, O'Farrell S, Bruggemann JH, Luckhurst BE, Mumby PJ (2016) Tradeoffs between fisheries harvest and the resilience of coral reefs. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113:4536–4541

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Breitberg DL, Craig JK, Fulford RS, Rose KA, Boyton WR, Brady DC, Ciotti BJ, Diaz RJ, Friedland KD, Hagy JD III, Hart DR, Hines AH, Houde ED, Kolesar SE, Nixon SW, Rice JA, Secor DH, Targett TE (2009) Nutrient enrichment and fisheries exploitation: interactive effects on estuarine living resources and their management. Hydrobiologia 629:31–47

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown AG, Lespez L, Sear DA, Macaire J-J, Houben P, Klimek K, Brazier RE, Van Oost K, Pears B (2018) Natural vs anthropogenic streams in Europe: history, ecology and implications for restoration, river-rewilding and riverine ecosystem services. Earth Sci Rev 180:185–205

    Google Scholar 

  • Burthe SJ, Henrys PA, Mackay EB, Spears BM, Campbell R, Carvalho L, Dudley B, Gunn IDM, Johns DG, Maberly SC, May L, Newell MA, Wanless S, Winfield IJ, Thackeray SJ, Daunt F (2016) Do early warning indicators consistently predict nonlinear change in long-term ecological data? J Appl Ecol 53:666–676

    Google Scholar 

  • Bush T, Diao M, Allen RJ, Sinnige R, Muyzer G, Huisman J (2017) Oxic-anoxic regime shifts mediated by feedbacks between biogeochemical processes and microbial community dynamics. Nat Commun 8:789

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Butitta VL, Carpenter SR, Loken LC, Pace ML, Stanley EH (2017) Spatial early warning signals in a lake manipulation. Ecosphere 8:e01941

    Google Scholar 

  • Camp EV, Pine WE III, Havens K, Kane AS, Walters CJ, Irani T, Lindsey AB, Morris JG Jr (2015) Collapse of a historic oyster fishery: diagnosing causes and identifying paths toward increased resilience. Ecol Soc 20:45

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell SK, Butler VL (2010) Archaeological evidence for resilience of Pacific Northwest salmon populations and the socioecological system over the last ~ 7500 years. Ecol Soc 15:17

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell T, Simmons J, Saenz J, Jerde CL, Cowan W, Chanda S, Hogan Z (2019) Population connectivity of adfluvial and stream-resident Lahontan cutthroat trout: implications for resilience, management and restoration. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 76:426–437

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson SM, Satterthwaite WH (2011) Weakened portfolio effects in a collapsed salmon population complex. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 68:1579–1589

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter SR, Cottingham KL (1997) Resilience and restoration of lakes. Ecol Soc 1:2

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter SR, Ludwig D, Brock WA (1999) Management of eutrophication for lakes subject to potentially irreversible change. Ecol Appl 9:751–771

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter SR, Gunderson LH (2001) Coping with collapse: ecological and social dynamics in ecosystem management. Bioscience 51:451–457

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter S, Walker B, Anderies JM, Abel N (2001) From metaphor to measurement: resilience of what to what? Ecosystems 4:765–781

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter SR (2003) Regime shifts in lake ecosystems: pattern and variation. Ecology Institute, Oldendorf/Luhe

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpenter SR, Bennet EM, Peterson GD (2006) Scenarios for ecosystem services: an overview. Ecol Soc 11:29

    Google Scholar 

  • Casini M, Blenckner T, Möllmann C, Gårdmark A, Lindegren M, Llope M, Kornilovs G, Plikshs M, Stenseth NC (2012) Predator transitory spillover induces trophic cascades in ecological sinks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109:8185–8189

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Castorani MCN, Reed DC, Alberto F, Bell TW, Simons RD, Cavanaugh KC, Siegel DA, Raimondi PT (2015) Connectivity structures local population dynamics: a long-term empirical test in a large metapopulation system. Ecology 96:3141–3152

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaalali A, Beaugrand G, Boet P (2013) Climate-caused abrupt shifts in a European macrotidal estuary. Estuaries Coasts 36:1193–1205

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chaffin BC, Gunderson LH (2016) Emergence, institutionalization and renewal: rhythms of adaptive governance in complex social-ecological systems. J Environ Manag 165:81–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Chavez FP, Ryan J, Lluch-Cota SE, Ñiquen CM (2003) From anchovies to sardines and back: Multidecadal change in the Pacific. Ocean Sci 299:217–221

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chester ET, Miller AD, Valenzuela I, Wickson SJ, Robson BJ (2015) Drought survival strategies, dispersal potential and persistence of invertebratespecies in an intermittent stream landscape. Freshw Biol 60:2066–2083

    Google Scholar 

  • Chretien E, Chapman LJ (2016) Habitat heterogeneity facility coexistence of native fishes with an introduced predator: the resilience of a fish community 5 decades after the introduction of Nile perch. Biol Invasions 18:3449–3464

    Google Scholar 

  • Christie P, Fluharty D, Kennard H, Pollnac R, Warren B (2018) Policy pivot in Puget Sound: lessons learned from marine protected areas and tribally-led estuarine restoration. Ocean Coast Manag 163:72–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti G, Greening H (2011) Estuarine biotope mosaics and habitat management goals: an application in Tampa Bay, FL, USA. Estuaries Coasts 34:1278–1292

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke PJ, Bell DM, Lawes MJ (2015) Testing the shifting persistence niche concept: plant resprouting along gradients of disturbance. Am Nat 185:747–755

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clements CF, Blanchard JL, Nash KL, Hindell MA, Ozgul A (2017) Body shifts and early warning signals precede the historic collapse of whale stocks. Nat Ecol Evol 1:0188

    Google Scholar 

  • Clements CF, McCarthy MA, Blanchard JL (2019) Early warning signals of recovery in complex systems. Nat Commun 10:1681

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Clements WH, Vleiea NKM, Church SE (2010) Quantifying restoration success and recovery in a metal-polluted stream: a 17-year assessment of physicochemical and biological responses. J Appl Ecol 47:899–910

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cloern JE, Hieb KA, Jacobson T, Sanso B, Di Lorenzo E, Stacy MT, Largier JL, Meiring W, Peterson WT, Powell TM, Winder M, Jassby AD (2010) Biological communities in San Francisco Bay track large-scale climate forcing over the North Pacific. Geophys Res Lett 37:L21602

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen MJ, Creed IF, Alexander L, Basu NB, Calhoun AJK, Craft C, D’Amico E, DeKeyser E, Fowler L, Golden HE, Jawitz JW, Kalla P, Kirkman LK, Lane CR, Lang M, Leibowitz SG, Lewis DB, Marton J, McLaughlin DL, Mushet DM, Raanan-Kiperwas H, Rains MC, Smith L, Walls SC (2016) Do geographically isolated wetlands influence landscape functions? Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113:978–1986

    Google Scholar 

  • Collie JS, Richardson K, Steele JH (2004) Regime shifts: can ecological theory illuminate the mechanisms? Prog Oceanogr 60:281–302

    Google Scholar 

  • Conley DJ, Paerl HW, Howarth RW, Boesch DF, Seitzinger SP, Havens KE, Lancelot C, Likens GE (2009) Controlling eutrophication: nitrogen and phosphorus. Science 323:1014–1015

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corrales X, Coll M, Ofr E, Heymans JJ, Steenbeek J, Goren M, Edelist D, Gal G (2018) Future scenarios of marine resources and ecosystem conditions in the Eastern Mediterranean under the impacts of fishing, alien species and sea warming. Sci Rep 8:14284

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Costanza R, d'Arge R, de Groot R, Farber S, Grasso M, Hannon B, Limburg K, Naeem S, O'Neill RV, Paruelo J, Raskin RG, Sutton P, van den Belt M (1997) The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature 387:253–260

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cote M, Nightingale AJ (2012) Resilience thinking meets social theory: situating social change in socio–ecological systems (SES) research. Prog Hum Geogr 36:475–489

    Google Scholar 

  • Cullen-Unsworth LC, Unsworth RKF (2016) Strategies to enhance the resilience of the world’s seagrass meadows. J Appl Ecol 53:967–972

    Google Scholar 

  • Cutter SL, Barnes L, Berry M, Burton C, Evans E, Tate E, Webb J (2008) A place-based model for understanding community resilience to natural disasters. Glob Environ Change 18:598–606

    Google Scholar 

  • Dakos V, Carpenter SR, Brock WA, Ellison AM, Guttal V, Ives AR, Kéfi S, Livina V, Seekell DA, van Nes EH, Scheffer M (2012) Methods for detecting early warnings of critical transitions in time series illustrated using simulated ecological data. PLoS ONE 7:e41010

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dakos V, Carpenter SR, van Nes EH, Scheffer M (2015) Resilience indicators: prospects and limitations for early warnings of regime shifts. Philos Trans R Soc B 370:20130263

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies TW, Jenkins SR, Kingham R, Kenworthy J, Hawkins SJ, Hiddink JG (2011) Dominance, biomass and extinction resistance determine the consequences of biodiversity loss for multiple coastal ecosystem processes. PLoS ONE 6:e28362

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dayton PK, Tegner MJ, Edwards PB, Riser KL (1998) Sliding baselines, ghosts and reduced expectations in kelp forest communities. Ecol Appl 8:309–322

    Google Scholar 

  • de Juan S, Thrush SF, Hewitt JE (2013) Counting on β-Diversity to safeguard the resilience of Estuaries. PLoS ONE 8:e65575

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Deacon C, Samways MJ, Pryke JS (2018) Artificial reservoirs complement natural ponds to improve pondscape resilience in conservation corridors in a biodiversity hotspot. PLoS ONE 13:e0204148

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dee LE, Miller SJ, Peavey LE, Bradley D, Gentry RR, Startz R, Gaines SD, Lester SE (2016) Functional diversity of catch mitigates negative effects of temperature variability on fishery yields. Proc R Soc B 283:20161435

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Detenbeck NE, Devore PW, Nieme GJ, Lima A (1992) Recovery of temperate-stream fish communities from disturbance: a review of case studies and synthesis of theory. Environ Manag 16:33–53

    Google Scholar 

  • deYong B, Barange M, Beaugrand G, Harris R, Perry RI, Scheffer M, Werner F (2008) Regime shifts in marine ecosystems: detection, prediction and management. Trends Ecol Evol 23:402–409

    Google Scholar 

  • Diaz S, Pascual U, Stenseke M, Martin-Lopez B, Watson RT, Molnar Z, Hill R, Chan KMA, Baste IA, Brauman KA, Polaski S, Church A, Lonsdale M, Lariganderie A, Leadley PW, van Oudenhoven APF, van der Paat F, Schroter M, Lavorel S, Anmeeruddy-Thomas Y, Bukvareva E, Davies K, Demissew S, Erpul G, Failler P, Guerra CA, Hewitt CL, Keune H, Lindley S, Shirayama Y (2018) Assessing natures contribution to people. Science 359:270–272

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diggelen AD, Montagna PA (2016) Is salinity variability a benthic disturbance in estuaries? Estuaries Coasts 39:967–980

    Google Scholar 

  • Doak DF, Bigger D, Harding EK, Marvier MA, O'Malley RE, Thomson D (1998) The statistical inevitability of stability-diversity relationships in community ecology. Am Nat 151:264–276

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duarte CM, Conley DJ, Carstensen J, Sánchez-Camacho M (2009) Return to Neverland: shifting baselines affect eutrophication restoration targets. Estuaries Coasts 32:29–36

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duarte CM, Borja A, Cartensen J, Elliott M, Krause-Jensen D, Marbà N (2015) Paradigms in the recovery of estuarine and coastal ecosystems. Estuaries Coasts 38:1202–1212

    Google Scholar 

  • Duffy JE, Lefcheck JS, Stuart-Smith RD, Navarrete SA, Edgar GJ (2016) Biodiversity enhances reed fish biomass and resistance to climate change. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113:6230–6235

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Duh J-D, Shandas V, Chang H, George LA (2008) Rates of urbanizations and the resiliency of air and water quality. Sci Total Environ 440:238–256

    Google Scholar 

  • Durance I, Bruford MW, Chalmers R, Chappell NA, Christie M, Cosby BJ, Noble D, Ormerod SJ, Prosser H, Weightman A, Woodward G (2016) The challenges of linking ecosystem services to diversity: lessons from a large-scale freshwater study. In: Woodward G, Bohan DA (eds) Advances in ecological research, vol 54. Academic Press, London, pp 87–134

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellender BR, Weyl OLF (2015) Resilience of imperiled headwater stream fish to an unpredictable high-magnitude flood. Koedoe 57:1258

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott M, Burdon D, Hemingway KL, Apitz SE (2007) Estuarine, coastal and marine ecosystem restoration: confusing management and science—a revision of concepts. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 4:349–366

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott M, Whitfield AK (2011) Challenging paradigms in estuarine ecology and management. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 94:306–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott M, Mander L, Mazik K, Simenstad C, Valesini F, Whitfield A, Wolanski E (2016) Ecoengineering with ecohydrology: success and failures in estuarine restoration. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 176:12–35

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elmqvist T, Folke C, Nyström M, Peterson G, Bengtsson J, Walker B, Norberg J (2003) Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. Front Ecol Environ 1:488–494

    Google Scholar 

  • Estes JA, Palmisano JF (1974) Sea Otters: their role in structuring nearshore communities. Science 185:1058–1060

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Estes JA, Tinker MT, Williams TM, Doak DF (1998) Killer whale predation on sea otters linking oceanic and nearshore ecosystems. Science 282:473–476

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Euliss NH Jr, LaBaugh JW, Fredrickson LH, Mushet DM, Laubhan MK, Swanson GA, Winter TC, Rosenberry DO, Nelson RD (2004) The wetland continuum: a conceptual framework for interpreting biological studies. Wetlands 24:448–458

    Google Scholar 

  • Feio MJ, Doledec S, Graca MAS (2015) Human disturbance affects the long-term spatial synchrony of freshwater invertebrate communities. Environ Pollut 196:300–308

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Filbee-Dexter K, Scheibling RE (2014) Sea urchin barrens as alternative stable states of collapsed kelp ecosystems. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 495:1–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Farley J, Voinov A (2016) Economics, socio-ecological resilience and ecosystem services. J Environ Manag 183:389–398

    Google Scholar 

  • Flotemersch JE, Leibowitz SG, Hill RA, Stoddard JL, Thoms MC, Tharme RE (2016) A watershed integrity definition and assessment approach to support strategic management of watersheds. River Res Appl 32:1654–1671

    Google Scholar 

  • Folke C, Carpenter S, Walker B, Scheffer M, Elmqvist T, Gunderson L, Holling CS (2004) Regime shifts, resilience, and biodiversity in ecosystem management. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 35:557–581

    Google Scholar 

  • Folke C, Biggs R, Norström AV, Reyers B, Rockström J (2016) Social-ecological resilience and biosphere-based sustainability science. Ecol Soc 21:41

    Google Scholar 

  • Fritz KM, Dodds WK (2004) Resistance and resilience of macroinvertebrate assemblages to drying and flood in a tallgrass prairie stream system. Hydrobiologia 527(1):99–112

    Google Scholar 

  • Fu H, Zhong J, Yuan G, Guo C, Ding H, Feng Q, Fu Q (2015) A functional-trait approach reveals community diversity and assembly processes response to flood disturbance in a subtropical wetland. Ecol Res 30:57–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Glicksman RL, Batzel MR (2010) Science, politics, law and the arc of the Clean Water Act: the role of assumptions in the adoption of a pollution control landmark. Wash Univ J Law Pol 32:99–138

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths JR, Schindler DE, Armstrong JB, Scheuerell MD, Whited DC, Clark RA, Hilborn R, Holt CA, Lindley ST, Stanford JA, Volk EC (2014) Performance of salmon fishery portfolios across western North America. J Appl Ecol 51:1554–1563

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Groffman PM, Baron JS, Blett T, Gold AJ, Goodman I, Gunderson LH, Levinson BM, Palmer MA, Paerl HW, Peterson GD, Poff NL, Rejeski DW, Reynolds JF, Turner MG, Weathers KC, Wiens J (2006) Ecological thresholds: the key to successful environmental management or an important conceptwith no practical application? Ecosystems 9:1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Gsell AS, Scharfenberger U, Özkundakci D, Walters A, Hansson L, Janssen ABG, Nöges P, Reid PC, Schindler DE, Van Donk E, Dakos V, Adrian R (2016) Evaluating early-warning indicators of critical transitions in natural aquatic systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 113:E8089–E8095

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Guerry AD, Polasky S, Lubchenco J, Chaplin-Kramer R, Daily GC, Griffin R, Ruckelshaus M, Bateman IJ, Duraiappah A, Elmqvist T, Feldman MW, Folke C, Hoekstra J, Kareiva PM, Keeler BL, Li S, McKenzie E, Ouyang Z, Reyers B, Ricketts TH, Rockstrom J, Tallis H, Vira B (2015) Natural capital and ecosystem services informing decisions: from promise to practice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112:7348–7355

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson LH (2000) Ecological resilience—in theory and application. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 31:425–439

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson LH (2001) Managing surprising ecosystems in southern Florida. Ecol Econ 37:371–378

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson LH, Carpenter SR, Folke C, Olsson P, Peterson G (2006) Water RATs (resilience, adaptability, and transformability) in lake and wetland social–ecological systems. Ecol Soc 11:16

    Google Scholar 

  • Gunderson L, Cosens BA, Chaffin BC, Arnold CA, Fremier AK, Garmestani AS, Kundis Craig RK, Gosnell H, Birge HE, Allen CR, Benson MH, Morrison RR, Stone MC, Hamm JA, Nemec K, Schlager E, Llewellyn D (2017) Regime shifts and panarchies in regional scale social–ecological water systems. Ecol Soc 22:31

    Google Scholar 

  • Haghkerdar JM, McLachlan JR, Ireland A (2018) Repeat disturbances have cumulative impacts on stream communities. Ecol Evol 9:2898–2906

    Google Scholar 

  • Hagy JD, Boynton WR, Keefe CW, Wood KV (2004) Hypoxia in Chesapeake Bay, 1950–2001: Long-term change in relation to nutrient loading and river flow. Estuaries Coasts 27:634–658

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton SL, Caselle JE (2015) Exploitation and recovery of a sea urchin predator has implications for the resilience of southern California kelp forests. Proc R Soc B 282:20141817

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hazelton ELG, Downard R, Kettenring KM, McCormick MK, Whigham DF (2018) Spatial and temporal variation in brackish wetland setbacks: implications for wetland restoration following Phragmites control. Estuaries Coasts 41:S68–S84

    Google Scholar 

  • Healey MC (2009) Resilient salmon, resilient fisheries for British Columbia Canada. Ecol Soc 14:2

    Google Scholar 

  • Heffernan JB (2008) Wetlands as an alternative stable state in desert streams. Ecology 89:1261–1271

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hershkovitz Y, Gasith A (2013) Resistance, resilience, and community dynamics on Mediterranean-climate streams. Hydrobiologia 719:59–75

    Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt JE, Thrush SF (2010) Empirical evidence of an approaching alternate state produced by intrinsic community dynamics, climate variability and management actions. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 413:267–276

    Google Scholar 

  • Hiers JK, Mitchell RJ, Barnett A, Walters JR, Mack M, Williams B, Sutter R (2012) The dynamic reference concept: measuring restoration success in a rapidly changing no-analogue future. Ecol Restor 30:27–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Holdschlag A, Ratter BMW (2013) Multiscale system dynamics of humans and nature in the Bahamas: perturbation, knowledge, panarchy and resilience. Sustain Sci 8:407–442

    Google Scholar 

  • Holling CS (1973) Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 1:1–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Holling CS (1996) Engineering resilience versus ecological resilience. In: Shulze P (ed) Engineering within ecological constraints. National Academy Press, Washington, pp 31–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Holling CS (2001) Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems. Ecosystems 4:390–405

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoppe CJM, Schuback N, Semeniuk DM, Maldonado MT, Rost B (2017) Functional redundancy facilitates resilience of subarctic phytoplankton assemblages toward ocean acidification and high irradiance. Front Mar Sci 4:229

    Google Scholar 

  • Howarth RW, Marino R (2006) Nitrogen as the limiting nutrient for eutrophication in coastal marine ecosystems: evolving views over three decades. Limnol Oceanogr 51:364–376

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TP (1994) Catastrophes, phase shifts, and large-scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef. Science 265:1547–1551

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes TP, Bellwood DR, Folke C, Steneck RS, Wilson J (2005) New paradigm for supporting the resilience of marine ecosystems. Trends Ecol Evol 20:380–386

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ibelings BA, Portielje R, Lammens EHRR, Noorduis R, van den Berg MS, Joose W, Meijer ML (2007) Resilience of alternative stable states during the recovery of shallow lakes from eutrophication: Lake Veluwe as a case study. Ecosystems 10:4–16

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ibrahim L, Preuss TH, Schaeffer A, Hommen U (2014) A contribution to the identification of representative vulnerable fish species for pesticide risk assessment in Europe—a comparison of population resilience using matrix models. Ecol Model 280:65–75

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ives CD, Abson DJ, von Wehrden H, Dorninger C, Klaniecki K, Fischer J (2018) Reconnecting with nature for sustainability. Sustain Sci 13:1389–1397

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson JBC, Kirby MX, Berger WH, Bjorndal KA, Botsford LW, Bourque BJ, Bradbury RH, Cooke R, Erlandson J, Estes JA, Hughes TP, Kidwell S, Lange CB, Lenihan HS, Pandolfi JM, Peterson CH, Steneck RS, Tegner MJ, Warner RR (2001) Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems. Science 293:629–637

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen ABG, Teurlincx S, An S, Janse JH, Paerl HW, Mooij WM (2014) Alternative stable states in large shallow lakes? J Great Lakes Res 40:813–826

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Janssen P, Piegay H, Evette A (2019) How maintenance and restoration measures mediate the response of riparian plant functional composition to environmental gradients on channel margins: insights from a highly degraded large river. Sci Total Environ 656:1312–1325

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jeppesen E, Kristensen P, Jensen JP, Sondergaard M, Mortensen E, Lauridsen T (1991) Recovery resilience following a reduction in external phosphorus loading of shallow eutrophic Danish lakes: duration, regulating factors and methods for overcoming resilience. Int J Limnol 48:127–148

    Google Scholar 

  • Jeppesen E, Sondergaard M, Jensen JP, Havens KE, Anneville O, Carvalho L, Coveney MF, Deneke R, Dokulil MT, Foy B, Gerdeaux D, Hampton SE, Hilt S, Kangur K, Kohler J, Lammens EHHR, Lauridsen TL, Manca M, Miracle MR, Moss B, Noges P, Persson G, Phillips G, Portielje R, Schelske CL, Straile D, Tatrai I, Willen E, Winder M (2005) Lake responses to reduced nutrient loading—an analysis of contemporary long-term data from 35 case studies. Freshw Biol 50:1747–1771

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jeppesen E, Søndergaard M, Pedersen AR, Jürgens K, Strzelczak A, Lauridsen TL, Johansson LS (2007) Salinity induced regime shift in shallow brackish lagoons. Ecosystems 10:47–57

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston EL, Mayer-Pinto M, Crowe TP (2015) Chemical contaminant effects on marine ecosystem functioning. J Appl Ecol 52:140–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Kernan M (2015) Climate change and the impact of invasive species on aquatic ecosystems. Aquat Ecosyst Health Manag 18:321–333

    Google Scholar 

  • Kibler KM, Cook GS, Chambers LG, Donnelly M, Hawthorne TL, Rivera FI, Walters L (2018) Integrating sense of place into ecosystem restoration: a novel approach to achieve synergistic social-ecological impact. Ecol Soc 23:25

    Google Scholar 

  • Knudson C, Kay K, Fisher S (2018) Appraising geodiversity and cultural diversity approaches to building resilience through conservation. Nat Clim Change 8:678–685

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause-Jensen D, Markager S, Dalsgaard T (2012) Benthic and pelagic primary production in different nutrient regimes. Estuaries Coasts 35:527–545

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krievins K, Plummer R, Baird J (2018) Building resilience in ecological restoration processed: a social-ecological perspective. Ecol Restor 36:195–207

    Google Scholar 

  • Ledger ME, Harris RML, Armitage PD, Milner AM (2012) Climate change impacts on community resilience: evidence from a drought disturbance experiment. Adv Ecol Res 46:211–258

    Google Scholar 

  • Leigh C, Bonada N, Boulton AJ, Hugueny B, Larned ST, Vander Vorste R, Datry T (2016) Invertebrate assemblage responses and the dual roles of resistance and resilience to drying in intermittent rivers. Aquat Sci 78:291–301

    Google Scholar 

  • Lepori F, Hjerdt N (2006) Disturbance and aquatic biodiversity: reconciling contrasting views. Bioscience 56:809–818

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin SA, Lubchenco J (2008) Resilience, robustness, and marine ecosystem-based management. Bioscience 58:27–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Levin PS, Möllmann C (2015) Marine ecosystem regime shifts: challenges and opportunities for ecosystem-based management. Philos Trans R Soc B 370:20130275

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin Q, Zhang K, Shen J, Liu E (2019) Integrating long-term dynamics of ecosystem services into restoration and management of large shallow lakes. Sci Total Environ 671:66–75

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ling SD, Scheibling RE, Rassweiler A, Johnson CR, Shears N, Connell SD, Salomon AK, Norderhaug KM, Pérez-Matus A, Hernández JC, Clemente S, Blamey LK, Hereu B, Ballesteros E, Sala E, Garrabou J, Cebrian E, Zabala M, Fujita D, Johnson LE (2015) Global regime shift dynamics of catastrophic sea urchin overgrazing. Philos Trans R Soc B 370:20130269

    Google Scholar 

  • Lotze HK, Worm B (2009) Historical baselines for large marine animals. Trends Ecol Evol 24:254–262

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lotze HK, Coll M, Magera AM, Ward-Paige C, Airoldi L (2011) Recovery of animal populations and ecosystems. Trends Ecol Evol 26:595–605

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lundquist CJ, Thrush SF, Coco G, Hewitt JE (2010) Interactions between disturbance and dispersal reduce persistence thresholds in a benthic community. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 413:217–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Maciejewski K, De Vos A, Cumming GS, Moore C, Biggs D (2015) Cross-scale feedbacks and scale mismatches as influences on cultural services and the resilience of protected areas. Ecol Appl 25:11–23

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magurran SE, Hendersen PA (2012) How selection structures species abundance distributions. Proc R Soc B 279:3722–3726

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maina J, McClanahan TR, Venus V, Ateweberhan M, Madin J (2011) Global gradients of coral exposure to environmental stresses and implications for local management. PLoS ONE 6:e23064

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mantyka-Pringle CS, Martin TG, Moffatt DB, Linke S, Rhodes JR (2014) Understanding and predicting the combined effects of climate change and land-use change on freshwater macroinvertebrates and fish. J Appl Ecol 51:572–581

    Google Scholar 

  • Massicotte P, Proulx R, Cabana G, Rodríguez MA (2015) Testing the influence of environmental heterogeneity on fish species richness in two biogeographic provinces. PeerJ 3:e760

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McCauley LA, Anteau MJ, van der Burg MP, Wiltermuth MT (2015) Land use and wetland drainage affect water levels and dynamics of remaining wetlands. Ecosphere 6:92

    Google Scholar 

  • McCleod E, Anthony KRN, Mumby PJ, Maynard J, Beeden R, Graham NAJ, Heron SF, Hoegh-Guldberg O, Jupiter S, MacGowan P, Mangubhai MN, Marshall PA, McClanahan HP, McCleod K, Nystrom M, Obura D, Parker B, Posingham HP, Salm RV, Tamelander J (2019) The future of resilience-based management in coral reef ecosystems. J Environ Manag 233:291–391

    Google Scholar 

  • McCluney KE, Poff NL, Palmer MA, Thorp JH, Poole GC, Williams BS, Williams MR, Baron JS (2014) Riverine macrosystems ecology: sensitivity, resistance, and resilience of whole river basins with human alterations. Front Ecol Environ 12:48–58

    Google Scholar 

  • McPhearson T, Hamstead ZA, Kremer P (2014) Urban ecosystem services for resilience planning and management in New York City. Ambio 43:502–515

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McWilliam M, Hoogenboom MO, Baird AH, Kuo C-Y, Madin JS, Hughes TP (2018) Biogeographical disparity in the functional diversity and redundancy of corals. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 115:3084–3089

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Merrill NH, Mulvaney KK, Martin DM, Chintala MM, Berry W, Gleason T, Balogh S, Humphries A (2018) A resilience framework for chronic exposures: water quality and ecosystem services in coastal social-ecological systems. Coast Manag 46:242–258

    Google Scholar 

  • Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems and human well-being: synthesis. Island Press, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner AM, Picken JL, Klaar MJ, Robertson AL, Clitherow LR, Eagle L, Brown LE (2018) River ecosystem resilience to extreme flood events. Ecol Evol 8:8354–8363

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Moksnes PO, Eriander L, Infantes E, Holmer M (2018) Local regime shifts prevent natural recovery and restoration of lost eelgrass beds along the Swedish west coast. Estuaries Coasts 41:1712–1731

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore TN, Cuker BE (2018) Sedimentary oxygen demand and orthophosphate release: sustaining eutrophication in a tributary of the Chesapeake Bay. J Water Resour Ocean Sci 7:42–48

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan RP, Cushman SF (2005) Urbanization effects on stream fish assemblages in Maryland, USA. J N Am Benthol Soc 24:643–655

    Google Scholar 

  • Mumby PJ, Edwards AJ, Arias-González JE, Lindeman KC, Blackwell PG, Gall A, Gorczynska MI, Harborne AR, Pescod CL, Renken H, Wabnitz CCC, Llewellyn G (2004) Mangroves enhance the biomass of coral reef fish communities in the Caribbean. Nature 427:533–536

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munkes B (2005) Eutrophication, phase shift, the delay and potential return in the Greifswalder Bodden, Baltic Sea. Aquat Sci 67:372–381

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mushet DM, Euliss NH Jr, Stockwell CA (2013) Complex spatial dynamics maintain northern leopard frog genetic diversity in a temporally varying landscape. Herpetol Conserv Biol 8:163–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Mushet DM, McKenna OP, LaBaugh JW, Euliss NH Jr, Rosenberry DO (2018) Accommodating state shifts within the conceptual framework of the wetland continuum. Wetlands 38:647–651

    Google Scholar 

  • Ness E (2017) The Model Lake. Isthmus, Madison, WI, 24 August 2017 https://www.isthmuscom/news/cover-story/steve-carpenter-sounds-a-warning-for-lake-mendota. Accessed 15 May 2018

  • Nyström M (2006) Redundancy and response diversity of functional groups: implications for the resilience of coral reefs. Ambio 35:30–35

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olds AD, Pitt KA, Maxwell PS, Connolly RM (2012) Synergistic effects of reserves and connectivity on ecological resilience. J Appl Ecol 49:1195–1203

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliver TH, Heard MS, Isaac NJB, Roy DB, Procter D, Eigenbrod F, Freckleton R, Hector A, Orme CDL, Petchey OL, Proença V, Raffaelli D, Suttle KB, Mace GM, Martín-López B, Woodcock BA, Bullock JM (2015) Biodiversity and resilience of ecosystem functions. Trends Ecol Evol 30:673–684

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oliver TH, Heard MS, Isaac NJB, Roy DB, Proctor D, Eigenbrod F, Freckleton R, Hector A, Orme CDL, Petchey OL, Proenca V, Raffaelli D, Suttle KB, Mace GM, Martin-Lopez B, Woodcock BA, Bullock JM (2016) A synthesis is emerging between biodiversity-ecosystem function and ecological resilience research: reply to Mori. Trends Ecol Evol 31:89–92

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oreska MPJ, Truitt B, Orth RJ, Luckenbach MW (2017) The bay scallop (Argopecten irradians) industry collapse in Virginia and its implications for the successful management of scallop-seagrass habitats. Mar Pol 75:116–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Orth RJ, Dennison WC, Lefcheck JS, Gurbisz C, Hannam M, Keisman J, Landry JB, Moore KA, Murphy RR, Patrick CJ, Testa J, Weller DE, Wilcox DJ (2017) Submersed aquatic vegetation in Chesapeake Bay: sentinel species in a changing world. Bioscience 67:698–712

    Google Scholar 

  • Ostrom E, Burger J, Field CB, Norgaard RB, Policansky D (1999) Revisiting the commons: local lessons, global challenges. Science 284:278–282

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palumbi SR, McLeod KL, Grunbaum D (2008) Ecosystems in action: lessons from marine ecology about recovery, resistance, and reversibility. Bioscience 58:33–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Pauly D (1995) Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries. Trends Ecol Evol 10:430

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pearson S, Jasmyn A, Lynch J, Plant R, Cork S, Taffs K, Dodson J, Maynard S, Gergis J, Gell P, Thackway R, Sealie L, Donaldson J (2015) Increasing understanding and use of natural archives of ecosystem services, resilience and thresholds to improve policy, science and practice. The Holocene 25:366–378

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearsons TN, Li HW, Lamberti GA (1992) Influence of habitat complexity on resistance to flooding and resilience of stream fish assemblages. Trans Am Fish Soc 121:427–436

    Google Scholar 

  • Peat M, Moon K, Dyer F, Johnson W, Nichols SJ (2017) Creating institutional flexibility for adaptive water management: insights from two management agencies. J Environ Manag 202:188–197

    Google Scholar 

  • Penaluna BE, Reeves GH, Barnett ZC, Bisson PA, Buffington JM, Dolloff CA, Flitcroft RL, Luce CH, Nislow KH, Rothlisberger JD, Warren ML Jr (2018) Using natural disturbance and portfolio concepts to guide aquatic–riparian ecosystem management. Fisheries 43:406–422

    Google Scholar 

  • Penfound WT (1952) An outline for ecological life histories of herbaceous vascular hydrophytes. Ecology 33:123–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Petchey OL, Gaston KL (2006) Functional diversity: back to basics and looking forward. Ecol Lett 9:741–758

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson G, Allen GR, Holling CS (1998) Ecological resilience, biodiversity and scale. Ecosystems 1:6–18

    Google Scholar 

  • Peterson G (2000) Political ecology and ecological resilience: an integration of human and ecological dynamics. Ecol Econ 35:323–336

    Google Scholar 

  • Petraitis PS, Hoffman C (2010) Multiple stable states and relationship between thresholds in processes and states. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 413:189–200

    Google Scholar 

  • Pinceel T, Buschke F, Weckx M, Brendonck L, Vanschoenwinkel B (2018) Climate change jeopardizes the persistence of freshwater zooplankton by reducing both habitat suitability and demographic resilience. BMC Ecol 18:2

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pires APF, Srivastava DS, Farjalla VF (2018) Is biodiversity able to buffer ecosystems from climate change? What we know and what we don’t. Bioscience 68:273–280

    Google Scholar 

  • Poff NL, Brown CM, Grantham TE, Matthews JH, Palmer MA, Spence CM, Wilby RL, Haasnoot M, Mendoza GF, Dominique KC, Baeza A (2016) Sustainable water management under future uncertainty with eco-engineering decision scaling. Nat Clim Change 6:25–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Poiani KA, Richter BD, Anderson MG, Richter HE (2000) Biodiversity conservation at multiple scales: functional sites, landscapes, and networks. Bioscience 50:133–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Powell EN, Ashton-Alcox KA, Kraeuter JN, Fors SE, Bushek D (2008) Long-term trends in oyster population dynamics in Delaware Bay: regime shifts and response to disease. J Shellfish Res 27:729–755

    Google Scholar 

  • Quandt RE (1958) The estimation of the parameters of a linear regression system obeying two separate regimes. J Am Stat Assoc 53:873–880

    Google Scholar 

  • Radionov SN (2004) A sequential algorithm for testing climate regime shifts. Geophys Res Lett 31:L09204

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramírez F, Coll M, Navarro J, Bustamante J, Green AJ (2018) Spatial congruence between multiple stressors in the Mediterranean Sea may reduce its resilience to climate impacts. Sci Rep 8:14871

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ray CG (2005) Connectivity of estuarine fishes to the coastal realm. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 64:18–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Rebstock GA (2002) Climatic regime shifts and decadal-scale variability in calanoid copepod populations off southern California. Glob Change Biol 8:71–89

    Google Scholar 

  • Reeves GH, Duncan SL (2009) Ecological history vs. social expectations: managing aquatic ecosystems. Ecol Soc 14:8

    Google Scholar 

  • Rehitha TV, Ullas N, Vineetha G, Benny PY, Madhu NV, Revichandran C (2017) Impact of maintenance dredging on macrobenthic community structure of a tropical estuary. Ocean Coast Manag 144:71–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Restall B, Conrad E (2015) A literature review of connectedness to nature and its potential for environmental management. J Environ Manag 159:264–278

    Google Scholar 

  • Reyers B, Folke C, Moore M-L, Biggs R, Galaz V (2018) Socio-ecological systems insights for navigating the dynamics of the Anthropocene. Annu Rev Environ Resour 43:267–289

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhoads BL, Wilson D, Urban M, Herricks EE (1999) Interaction between scientists and nonscientists in community-based watershed management: emergence of the concept of stream naturalization. Environ Manag 24:297–308

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robards MD, Schoon ML, Meek CL, Engle NL (2011) The importance of social drivers in the resilient provision of ecosystem services. Glob Environ Change 21:522–529

    Google Scholar 

  • Rolls RJ, Heino J, Ryder DS, Chessman BC, Growns IO, Thompson RM, Gido KB (2018) Scaling biodiversity responses to hydrological regimes. Biol Rev 93:971–995

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roth F, Stuhldreier I, Sánchez-Noguera C, Morales-Ramírez A, Wild C (2015) Effects of simulated overfishing on the succession of benthic algae and invertebrates in an upwelling-influenced coral reef of Pacific Costa Rica. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 468:55–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Roy AH, Rosemond AD, Paul MJ, Leigh DS, Wallace JB (2003) Stream macroinvertebrate response to catchment urbanization (Georgia, U.S.A.). Freshw Biol 48:329–346

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan ME, Palen WJ, Adams MJ, Rochefort RM (2014) Amphibians in the climate vice: loss and restoration of resilience of montane wetland ecosystems in the western US. Front Ecol Environ 12:232–240

    Google Scholar 

  • Sattler C, Loft L, Mann C, Meyer (2018) Methods in ecosystem services governance analysis. Ecosyst Serv 34:155–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Savenkoff C, Castonguay M, Chabot D, Hammill MO, Bourdages H, Morissette L (2007) Changes in the northern Gulf of St. Lawrence ecosystem estimated by inverse modeling: evidence of a fishery-indices regime shift? Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 73:711–724

    Google Scholar 

  • Scavia D, Field JC, Boesch DF, Buddemeier RW, Burkett V, Cayan DR, Fogerty M, Harwell MA, Howarth RW, Mason C, Reed DJ, Royer TC, Sallenger AH, Titus JG (2002) Climate change impacts on U.S. coastal and marine ecosystems. Estuaries 25:149–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer M, Hosper SH, Meijer ML, Moss B, Jeppesen E (1993) Alternative equilibria in shallow lakes. Trends Ecol Evol 8:275–279

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer M, Brock W, Westley F (2000) Socioeconomic mechanisms preventing optimum use of ecosystem services: an interdisciplinary theoretical analysis. Ecosystems 3:451–471

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer M, Carpenter SR, Foley JA, Folke C, Walker B (2001) Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413:591–596

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer M, Carpenter SR (2003) Catastrophic regime shifts in ecosystems: linking theory to observation. Trends Ecol Evol 18:648–656

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer M, Jeppesen E (2007) Regime shifts in shallow lakes. Ecosystems 10:1–3

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer M, Carpenter SR, Dakos V, van Ness EH (2015) Generic indicators of ecological resilience. Inferring the chance of a critical transition. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 46:145–167

    Google Scholar 

  • Schindler DE, Hilborn R, Chasco B, Boatright CP, Quinn TP, Rogers LA, Webster MS (2010) Population diversity and the portfolio effect in an exploited species. Nature 465:609–612

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schindler DE, Hilborn R (2015) Prediction, precaution, and policy under global change. Science 347:953–954

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seabrook MR, Townsend CR (1993) Stream community structure in relation to spatial and temporal variation: a habitats template study of two contrasting New Zealand streams. Freshw Biol 29:395–410

    Google Scholar 

  • Shade A, Peter H, Allison SD, Baho DL, Berga M, Bürgmann H, Huber DH, Langenheder S, Lennon JT, Martiny JBH, Matulich KL, Schmidt TM, Handelsman J (2012) Fundamentals of microbial community resistance and resilience. Front Microbiol 3:417

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shanley CS, Albert DM (2014) Climate change sensitivity index for Pacific salmon habitat in southeast Alaska. PLoS ONE 9:e104799

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sievert NA, Paukert CP, Tsang Y-P, Infante D (2016) Development and assessment of indices to determine stream fish vulnerability to climate change and habitat alteration. Ecol Ind 67:401–416

    Google Scholar 

  • Simenstad C, Reed D, Ford M (2006) When is restoration not? Incorporating landscape scale processed to restore self-sustaining ecosystems in coastal wetland restoration. Ecol Eng 26:27–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinclair ARE, Pech RP, Fryxell JM, McCann K, Byrom AE, Savory CJ, Brashares J, Arthur AD, Catling PC, Triska MD, Craig MD, Sinclair TJE, McLaren JR, Turkington R, Beyers RL, Harrower WL (2018) Predicting and assessing progress in the restoration of ecosystems. Conserv Lett 11:1–10

    Google Scholar 

  • Small C, Nicholls RJ (2003) A global analysis of human settlement in Coastal Zones. J Coastal Res 19:584–599

    Google Scholar 

  • Søndergaard M, Kristensen P, Jeppesen E (1992) Phosphorus release from resuspended sediment in the shallow and wind exposed Lake Arresø, Denmark. Hydrobiologia 228:91–99

    Google Scholar 

  • Søndergaard M, Jensen JP, Jeppesen E (2003) Role of sediment and internal loading of phosphorus in shallow lakes. Hydrobiologia 506:135–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Southward AJ, Boalch GT, Maddock L (1988) Fluctuations in the herring and pilchard fisheries of Devon and Cornwall linked to change in climate since the 16th century. J Mar Biol Assoc UK 68:423–445

    Google Scholar 

  • Spenser M, Birchenough SNR, Mieszkowska N, Robinson LA, Simpson SD, Burrows MT, Capasso E, Cleall-Harding P, Crummy J, Duck C, Eloire D, Frost M, Hall AJ, Hawkins SJ, Johns DG, Sims DW, Smyth TJ, Frid CLJ (2010) Temporal change in UK marine communities: trends or regime shifts? Mar Ecol 32:10–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Stachowicz JJ, Fried H, Osman RW, Whitlach RB (2002) Biodiversity, invasion resistance, and marine ecosystem function: reconciling pattern and process. Ecology 83:2575–2590

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanley EH, Powers SM, Lottig NR (2010) The evolving legacy of disturbance in stream ecology: concepts, contributions, and coming challenges. J N Am Benthol Soc 29:67–83

    Google Scholar 

  • Strong JA, Angonegi E, Bizsel KC, Danovaro R, Elliott M, Franco A, Garces E, Little S, Mazik K, Moncheva S, Papadopoulou N, Patricio J, Queiros AM, Smith C, Stefanova K, Solaum O (2015) Marine biodiversity and ecosystem function relationships: the potential for practical monitoring applications. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 161:46–64

    Google Scholar 

  • Sundstrom SM, Angeler DG, Barichievy C, Eason T, Garmestani A, Gunderson L, Knudson M, Nash KL, Spanbauer T, Stow C, Allen CR (2018) The distribution and role of functional abundance in cross-scale resilience. Ecology 99:2421–2432

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Terui A, Ishiyama N, Urabe H, Ono S, Finlay JC, Nakamura F (2018) Metapopulation stability in branching river networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 115:e5965

    Google Scholar 

  • Thom R, St Clair T, Burns R, Anderson M (2016) Adaptive management of large aquatic ecosystem recovery programs in the United States. J Environ Manag 183:424–430

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill IA, Biggs J, Hill MJ, Briers R, Gledhill D, Wood PJ, Gee JHR, Ledger M, Hassall C (2018) The functional response and resilience in small waterbodies along land-use and environmental gradients. Glob Change Biol 24:3079–3092

    Google Scholar 

  • Thrush SF, Hewitt JE, Dayton PK, Coco G, Lohrer AM, Norkko A, Norkko J, Chiantore M (2009) Forecasting the limits of resilience: integrating empirical research with theory. Proc R Soc B 276:3209–3217

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Timpane-Padgham BL, Beechie T, Klinger T (2017) A systematic review of ecological attributes that confer resilience to climate change in ecological restoration. PLoS ONE 12:e0173812

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tisseuil C, Vrac M, Grennouillet G, Wade AJ, Gevrey M, Oberforff T, Grodwohl J-B, Lek S (2012) Strengthening the link between climate, hydrological and species distribution modeling to assess the impacts of climate change on freshwater biodiversity. Sci Total Environ 424:193–201

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tompkins E, Adger N (2004) Does adaptive management of natural resources enhance resilience to climate change? Ecol Soc 9:10

    Google Scholar 

  • Troell M, Rönnbäck P, Wennhage H, Söderqvist T, Kautsky (2005) Regime shifts and ecosystem services in Swedish coastal soft bottom habitats: when resilience is undesirable. Ecol Soc 10:30

    Google Scholar 

  • Truchy A, Angeler DG, Sponseller RA, Johnson RK, McKie BG (2015) Linking biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and services, and ecological resilience: towards an integrated framework for improved management. Adv Ecol Res 53:55–96

    Google Scholar 

  • Uden DR, Hellman ML, Angeler DG, Allen CR (2014) The role of reserves and anthropogenic habitats for functional connectivity and resilience of ephemeral wetlands. Ecol Appl 24:1569–1582

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Unsworth RKF, Collier CJ, Waycott M, Mckenzie LJ, Cullen-Unsworth LC (2015) A framework for the resilience of seagrass ecosystems. Mar Pollut Bull 100:34–46

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • US EPA (2012) Identifying and Protecting Healthy Watersheds: Concepts, Assessments, and Management Approaches. EPA/841/B-11/002. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC

  • van Altena C, Bakker ES, Kuiper JJ, Mooij WM (2016) The impact of bird herbivory on macrophytes and the resilience of the clear-water state in shallow lakes: a model study. Hydrobiologia 777:197–207

    Google Scholar 

  • van Putten IE, Plaganyi EE, Cvitanovic C, Kelly R, Punt AE, Richards SA (2018) A framework for incorporating sense of place into the management of marine systems. Ecol Soc 23:4

    Google Scholar 

  • Verdonschot PM, Spears BM, Feld CK, Brucet S, Keizer-Vlek BA, Elliott M, Kernan M, Johnson RK (2013) A comparative review of recovery processes in rivers, lakes, estuarine and coastal waters. Hydrobiologia 704:453–474

    Google Scholar 

  • Viaroli P, Bartoli M, Giordani G, Naldi M, Orfanidis S, Zaldivar JM (2008) Community shifts, alternative stable states, biogeochemical controls and feedbacks in eutrophic coastal lagoons: a brief overview. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 18:S105–S117

    Google Scholar 

  • Wainger LA, Secor DH, Gurbisz C, Kemp WM, Gilbert PM, Houde ED, RichkusJ BMC (2017) Resilience indicators in support of estuarine ecosystem restoration under climate change. Ecosyst Health Sustain 3:e01268

    Google Scholar 

  • Waldman J, Wilson KA, Mather M, Snyder NP (2016) A resilience approach can improve anadromous fish restoration. Fisheries 41:116–126

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker B, Holling CS, Carpenter SR, Kinzig A (2004) Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social–ecological systems. Ecol Soc 9:5

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker B, Gunderson L, Kinzig A, Folke C, Carpenter S, Schultz L (2006) A handful of heuristics and some propositions for understanding resilience in socio–ecological systems. Ecol Soc 11:13

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh CJ, Roy AH, Feminella JW, Cottingham PD, Groffman PM, Morgan RP II (2005) The urban stream syndrome: current knowledge and the search for a cure. J N Am Benthol Soc 24:706–723

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang HJ, Wang HZ, Liang XM, Wu SK (2014) Total phosphorus thresholds for regime shifts are nearly equal in subtropical and temperate shallow lakes with moderate depths and areas. Freshw Biol 59:1659–1671

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Waples RS, Beechie T, Pess GR (2009) Evolutionary history, habitat disturbance regimes, and anthropogenic changes: what do these mean for resilience of Pacific salmon populations? Ecol Soc 14:3

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson SCL, Grandfield FGC, Herbert RJH, Newton AC (2018) Detecting ecological thresholds and tipping points in the natural capital assets of a protected coastal ecosystem. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 215:112–123

    Google Scholar 

  • Waycott M, Duarte CM, Carruthers TJB, Orth RJ, Dennison WC, Olyarnik S, Calladine A, Fourqurean JW, Heck KH Jr, Hughes AR, Kendrick GA, Kenworthy WJ, Short FT, Williams SL (2009) Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 106:12377–12381

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Weijerman M, Lindeboom H, Zuur AF (2005) Regime shifts in marine ecosystems of the North Sea and Wadden Sea. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 298:21–39

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weijerman M, Gove JM, Williams ID, Walsh WJ, Minton D, Polovina JJ (2018) Evaluating management strategies to optimise coral reef ecosystem services. J Appl Ecol 55:1823–1833

    Google Scholar 

  • Wernberg T, Russell BD, Moore PJ, Ling SD, Smale DA, Campbell A, Coleman MA, Steinberg PD, Kendrick GA, Connell SD (2011) Impacts of climate change in a global hotspot for temperate marine biodiversity and ocean warming. J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 400:7–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Wernberg T, Coleman MA, Bennett S, Thomsen MS, Tuya F, Kelaher BP (2018) Genetic diversity and kelp forest vulnerability to climatic stress. Sci Rep 8:1851

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • White E, Kaplan D (2017) Restore or retreat? Saltwater intrusion and water management in coastal wetlands. Ecosyst Health Sustain 3:e01258

    Google Scholar 

  • Wondie A (2018) Ecological conditions and ecosystem services of wetlands in the Lake Tana Area, Ethiopia. Ecohydrol Hydrobiol 18:231–244

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodhead AJ, Hicks CC, Norström AV, Williams GJ, Graham NAJ (2018) Coral reef ecosystem services in the Anthropocene. Funct Ecol 33:1023–1034

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodward G, Bonada N, Feeley HB, Giller PS (2015) Resilience of a stream community to extreme climatic events and long-term recovery from a catastrophic flood. Freshw Biol 60:2497–2510

    Google Scholar 

  • Worm B, Hilborn R, Baum JK, Branch TA, Collie JS, Costello C, Fogarty MJ, Fulton EA, Hutchings JA, Jennings S, Jensen OP, Lotze HK, Mace PM, McClanahan TR, Minto C, Palumbi SR, Parma AM, Ricard D, Rosenberg AA, Watson R, Zeller D (2009) Rebuilding global fisheries. Science 325:578–585

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zedler JB (2017) What’s new in adaptive management and restoration of coats and estuaries? Estuaries Coasts 40:1–21

    Google Scholar 

  • Zeglin LH (2015) Stream microbial diversity in response to environmental changes: review and synthesis of existing research. Front Microbiol 6:454

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang J, Jorgensen SE, Beklioglu M, Ince O (2003) Hysteresis in vegetation shift—Lake Morgan prognoses. Ecol Model 164:227–238

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang K (2016) Regime shifts and resilience in China’s coastal ecosystems. Ambio 45:89–98

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao Q, Bai J, Huang L, Gu B, Lu Q (2016) A review of methodologies and success indicators for coastal wetland restoration. Ecol Ind 60:442–452

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Suzy Ayvazian, Sandra Robinson, Jonathan Serbst, and two anonymous reviewers for their technical reviews. The views expressed in this manuscript are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the US Environmental Protection Agency. Any mention of trade names, products, or services does not imply an endorsement by the US Government or the US Environmental Protection Agency. The EPA does not endorse any commercial products, services, or enterprises. This is STICS ORD-028161.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marguerite C. Pelletier.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pelletier, M.C., Ebersole, J., Mulvaney, K. et al. Resilience of aquatic systems: Review and management implications. Aquat Sci 82, 44 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00027-020-00717-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00027-020-00717-z

Keywords

Navigation