Modulation of synoptic circulation to dry season PM2.5 pollution over the Pearl River Delta region: An investigation based on self-organizing maps
Introduction
With the rapid urban growth and industrial development in recent decades, high concentrations of ambient pollutants have become major environmental problems because of their adverse effects on public health (Chen et al., 2017; Lelieveld et al., 2015; Shiraiwa et al., 2017). Many studies have investigated the formation mechanisms of air pollution, revealing that the major contributors are anthropogenic emissions and meteorological conditions. Due to the quasi-stable nature in anthropogenic emissions, the short-term fluctuations in air quality are thought to be attributed to variable transport/dispersion conditions, which are largely subject to synoptic-scale circulations (Demuzere et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2012). Therefore, understanding the synoptic modulation to air pollution is very important for the early prediction of air pollution episodes.
Synoptic-scale circulations represent certain atmospheric conditions in a given area through their close association with various meteorological variables (Zheng et al., 2015). By classifying large-scale circulation states into different patterns, synoptic climatology serves as a powerful tool to develop direct linkages between synoptic circulation and local environment (Dayan et al., 2012; Yarnal, 1993; Yarnal et al., 2001). The last ten years have witnessed a growing application of automated circulation classification in the air pollution research (Demuzere et al., 2009; Hegarty et al., 2007; Liao et al., 2017; Mao et al., 2020; Miao et al., 2017, 2019; Pope et al., 2015; Russo et al., 2014; Santurtun et al., 2015; Shu et al., 2017; Ye et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2012, 2013). However, the traditional synoptic classification methodologies (e.g., principal component analysis) suffer from a general shortcoming, i.e., the clustered circulation patterns cannot be organized into a continuum (Hewitson and Crane, 2002; Sheridan and Lee, 2011). Such shortcoming could propagate to subsequent analysis, inhibiting a detailed identification of synoptic modulation to air pollution.
The abovementioned shortcoming can be solved by the self-organized map (SOM) (Hewitson and Crane, 2002), an unsupervised neural network algorithm based on competitive and cooperative learning that projects data onto a topologically ordered array (Kohonen, 1995). Unlike traditional classification methods, the SOM array represents the atmospheric continuity and could visualize relationships between synoptic circulation and local environment (Liu et al., 2006). The advantages have made the SOM become an increasingly popular tool in atmospheric research (Gallagher et al., 2018; Gibson et al., 2016; Horton et al., 2015; Jiang et al., 2015; Juliano and Lebo, 2019; Lennard and Hegerl, 2015; Liu et al., 2016; Mattingly et al., 2016; Yu and Zhong, 2018). For the first time, Pearce et al. (2011) extended the SOM method into air pollution research and proved the SOM technique to be a robust medium for examining the relationships between synoptic circulations and air pollution. After that, Jiang et al. (2017) conducted an investigation on how subtle changes in the synoptic systems affected the local meteorology and air quality in Sydney based on the SOM classification; Han et al. (2019) quantified the local and synoptic meteorological influences on the daily variability of summertime surface ozone in eastern China with the aid of the SOM method.
The Pearl River Delta (PRD) region (i.e., the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay area), which is located in the coastal part of southern China, has recently been identified as the largest morphologically continuous urban agglomeration in the world (Taubenböck et al., 2019). As a side effect of megacity urbanization, the regional air pollution caused by photochemical smog and haze-fog have become urgent environmental problems (Deng et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Wu et al., 2005). In particular, frequent fine particle (PM2.5) pollution during the dry season (October to March) poses a health threat to the 70 million inhabitants living in this region (Lin et al., 2016). Topographically, the PRD region is situated within a basin bounded by elevated terrain to the east, north and west, and the South China Sea to the south (Fig. 1). The local meteorological conditions in the PRD region are hence influenced by a range of synoptic circulation features and some complex terrain-related local and mesoscale phenomena, such as sea/land breezes, slope/valley winds and urban heat island circulation (Fan et al., 2006, 2008, 2011; Lu et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2017). Previous studies have demonstrated that each type of local and mesoscale circulation plays an important role in the status of the air quality over the PRD region (Ding et al., 2004; Li et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2017; Lo et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2013; Xia et al., 2016). However, the demonstrated importance of the local to mesoscale structures for regional air pollution is not detached from the larger-scale synoptic circulation. There is still a gap in the understanding of the response of local meteorological conditions to large-scale circulation patterns and the modulation of synoptic circulation to PM2.5 pollution over the PRD region.
This study combined the SOM method with quantitative measures of regional wind regimes to investigate how the local, mesoscale and large-scale synoptic meteorological conditions jointly affect the PM2.5 air quality across the PRD region based on multisite observations during the dry seasons from 2013 to 2019, aiming to establish a visualized linkage between synoptic circulation patterns, local meteorological conditions and daily air quality in this complex coastal-basin environment. The results would improve our understanding of PM2.5 pollution over the PRD region from multiscale perspective.
Section snippets
Meteorological data
In this analysis, daily mean sea-level pressure (MSLP) data from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) ERA-Interim reanalysis dataset were used to determine the synoptic circulation patterns affecting the PRD during the dry seasons from 2013 to 2019. The analyzed domain covers the latitudes 12.5°N–32.5°N and longitudes 97.5°E−127.5°E (horizontal resolution 0.5° × 0.5°), in which the PRD is located near the center. To obtain more homogeneous data for the SOM-based
Self-organizing maps
Self-organizing maps were employed to categorize the large-scale circulation conditions to develop a dry season synoptic climatology for the PRD region. The SOM technique, which conceptually dated back to the late 1980s and was first presented in detail in Kohonen (1995), is a neural network algorithm that uses unsupervised classification to perform nonlinear mapping of high-dimensional datasets onto regular two-dimensional arrays (i.e., nodes). It is preferred over other circulation
Self-organized synoptic circulation patterns
The SOM of the MSLP provided a clear visualization of the atmospheric continuum by presenting nine archetypes of large-scale circulation patterns (Fig. 3). Due to the nature of the SOM method, the nodes on the SOM plane (Fig. 3) were topologically ordered (i.e., self-organized), with the corner nodes representing the circulation patterns that differed most from each other. There is a gradual transition between the neighboring patterns on the SOM plane, which corresponds to subtle change in the
Conclusion
Based on SOM neural network algorithm, a dry season synoptic catalogue was developed for the PRD region, comprising 9 circulation patterns that were self-organized on the SOM plane. The self-organized circulation patterns facilitated a systematic investigation on how the synoptic circulation variability affected regional meteorological conditions and subsequently the PM2.5 air quality over the PRD region.
The results suggested that the synoptic circulation patterns played an important role in
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Zhiheng Liao: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Data curation, Visualization, Writing - original draft. Jielan Xie: Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Validation. Xingqin Fang: Investigation, Data curation, Writing - review & editing. Yu Wang: Investigation, Data curation. Yu Zhang: Investigation, Data curation. Xinqi Xu: Investigation, Data curation. Shaojia Fan: Conceptualization, Resources, Supervision, Project administration.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by the National Key Research and Development Plan of China (Nos. 2017YFC0209606 and 2016YFC0203305) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41630422).
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