Spatio-temporal trends in the surface ice velocities of the central Himalayan glaciers, India
Section snippets
Introduction and background
Glaciers move downslope under the influence of gravity with varying rates depending upon various factors such as topography and climate (Benn and Evans, 2010; Zhang et al., 2010). Movement under their own weight generates stress which strains the glacial ice to deform and creep (Benn and Evans, 2010; Rivera et al., 2011). Glacier ice also melts under pressure, and meltwater at the ice-bedrock interface augments glacier sliding (Blake et al., 1994; Scherler et al., 2011). Thus, the total surface
Study area and dataset
The study area belong to the Indian part of the central Himalaya (i.e. ICH) constrained to the state boundary of Uttarakhand, India. Spatially, it extends from latitude 28.43° to 31.27° N and longitude 77.34° to 81.02° E and it is bordered by Tibet/China in the north, Himachal Pradesh in the west and Nepal in the East (Fig. 1). The relief in the study region varied from ~530 m above sea level (asl) to 7816 m asl (Nanda Devi Peak; Second highest in India after the Kangchenjunga). There are 1573
Surface ice velocity (SIV) estimation
The SIVs have been calculated using optical image correlation techniques from repeat Landsat images for three Epochs i.e. 1993/94, 2000/01 and 2015/16. These three time periods are used to label the tables and figures, however, the actual dates of SIV-pairs may vary for different glaciers (Table 3). The ‘Co-registration of Optically Sensed Images and Correlation’ (COSI-Corr), a plug-in module to ENVI software, developed by Leprince et al. (2007) and described in details by Scherler et al. (2008)
Results
Fig. 6 shows the SIVs of the selected glaciers for 1993/94, 2000/01 and 2015/16 periods. Also, the average and maximum SIV for individual glacier are summarized in Table 4. Owing to bad correlations resulted from shadow and cloud cover, out of 18 selected glaciers, the SIVs could only be computed for 16 glaciers in 1993/94 (except CG3 and CG18), and 2000/01 (except CG10 and CG18), and 17 glaciers in 2015/16 (except CG10). Results show an average SIV of 22.99 ± 5.8, 18.59 ± 3.1 and 13.08 ± 1.7 m
Understanding the glacier dynamics
This study evaluates glacier velocity variations in the ICH for 1993/94–2015/16 period. The SIV measurements are mainly restricted to the lower part of the glaciers where the visual contrast favors image matching (Fig. 6). In case of negative mass balance regimes, the ice flux is reduced over time owing to less mass to transport. Heid and Kääb (2012) highlighted that this effect eventually accumulates down the glacier so that the change in ice flux is expected to be small in upper reaches of
Concluding remarks
This study investigates the glacier velocities of the 18 selected ICH glaciers for 1993/94, 2000/01 and 2015/16. The presented analysis may provide important input for other glaciological and hydrological studies (e.g. modelling), and considering the data paucity, may form the baseline data in the region pertaining to glacier dynamics. Results reveal that as compared to the Everest region, further east to our study area, the ICH glaciers are more active with sufficient proportion of Type-I
Acknowledgements
Authors are grateful to the Director, Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, India, for providing requisite facilities to carry out this work. We thank U.S. Geological Survey for providing Landsat data free of charge for this work. P.K. Garg wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. D.P. Dobhal for his guidance throughout the study. A. Shukla thanks the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India for facilitating the study.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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