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Impact of Low-Energy Cosmic Rays on Star Formation

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Abstract

In recent years, exciting developments have taken place in the identification of the role of cosmic rays in star-forming environments. Observations from radio to infrared wavelengths and theoretical modelling have shown that low-energy cosmic rays (\(< 1\text{ TeV}\)) play a fundamental role in shaping the chemical richness of the interstellar medium, determining the dynamical evolution of molecular clouds. In this review we summarise in a coherent picture the main results obtained by observations and by theoretical models of propagation and generation of cosmic rays, from the smallest scales of protostars and circumstellar discs, to young stellar clusters, up to Galactic and extragalactic scales. We also discuss the new fields that will be explored in the near future thanks to new generation instruments, such as: CTA, for the \(\gamma \)-ray emission from high-mass protostars; SKA and precursors, for the synchrotron emission at different scales; and ELT/HIRES, JWST, and ARIEL, for the impact of cosmic rays on exoplanetary atmospheres and habitability.

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Notes

  1. Low-energy CRs are defined as charged particles outside of the thermal distribution. The energy peak of the Maxwellian distribution is at about 1 meV, 5 meV, and 1 eV for typical temperatures of dense cores (\(T=10~\text{K}\)), diffuse clouds (\(T=50~\text{K}\)), and protostellar jets (\(T=10^{4}~\text{K}\)), respectively.

  2. By setting the lower integration limit to zero and the upper one to \(E\) in Eq. (5), we obtain the stopping range \(R(E)\) for particles with zero pitch angles (\(\mu =1\)), plotted for different CR species in Fig. 3 (Sect. 3.2).

  3. In Padovani et al. (2018b), the total column density of all gaseous species was used (assuming all the hydrogen to be in molecular form), whereas \(N\) in Eq. (1) is the total column density of hydrogen atoms. Therefore, \(N\) in Silsbee and Ivlev (2019) is a factor of 1.67 higher than that in Padovani et al. (2018b), which is taken into account in the value of \(L_{0}\).

  4. For convenience, the value of \(\tilde{\nu }\) used here is twice the value of \(\nu \) in Ivlev et al. (2018) and Dogiel et al. (2018).

  5. Neufeld and Wolfire (2017) plot \(\zeta_{\mathrm{prim}}\), the primary ionisation rate per hydrogen, which they assume to be 1/2.3 times the total ionisation rate \(\zeta _{\mathrm{H}_{2}}\) (including secondary ionisations) per H2. Taking the fraction of secondary ionisation equal to 0.7 (Glassgold et al. 2012), we shift the points from Neufeld and Wolfire (2017) upwards by a factor of 1.4.

  6. A parallel and perpendicular shock is when the shock normal is parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to the ambient magnetic field.

  7. The relation between up- and downstream temperatures is given by the classic Rankine-Hugoniot condition.

  8. The factor of 4 in the denominator accounts for the fact that the downstream diffusion in the transverse direction is in two dimensions.

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Acknowledgements

M.P. acknowledges funding from the INAF PRIN-SKA 2017 program 1.05.01.88.04. J.M.D.K. gratefully acknowledges funding from the German Research Foundation (DFG) in the form of an Emmy Noether Research Group (grant number KR4801/1-1) and a DFG Sachbeihilfe Grant (grant number KR4801/2-1), from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme via the ERC Starting Grant MUSTANG (grant agreement number 714907), and from Sonderforschungsbereich SFB 881 “The Milky Way System” (subproject B2) of the DFG. S.S.R.O. acknowledges funding from NSF Career grant AST-1650486 and NASA ATP grant 80NSSC20K0507. P.G. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council under ERC-CoG grant CRAGSMAN-646955.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. INAF – Osservatorio Astrofisico di Arcetri, Largo E. Fermi, 5, 50125, Firenze, Italy

    Marco Padovani & Daniele Galli

  2. Max-Planck-Institut für extraterrestrische Physik, Giessenbachstr. 1, 85748, Garching, Germany

    Alexei V. Ivlev

  3. Department of Astronomy, The University of Texas at Austin, 2500 Speedway, Austin, TX, 78712, USA

    Stella S. R. Offner

  4. ALMA Project, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, 2-21-1 Osawa, Mitaka, Tokyo, 181-8588, Japan

    Nick Indriolo

  5. School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin, University of Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, Co. Dublin, D02 PN40, Ireland

    Donna Rodgers-Lee

  6. Laboratoire Univers et Particules de Montpellier, UMR 5299 du CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Place E. Bataillon, cc072, 34095, Montpellier, France

    Alexandre Marcowith

  7. Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik Potsdam (AIP), An der Sternwarte 16, 14482, Potsdam, Germany

    Philipp Girichidis

  8. Ioffe Institute, Politehnicheskaya 26, St. Petersburg, 194021, Russian Federation

    Andrei M. Bykov

  9. Astronomisches Rechen-Institut, Zentrum für Astronomie der Universität Heidelberg, Mönchhofstr. 12-14, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany

    J. M. Diederik Kruijssen

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  1. Marco Padovani
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Star Formation

Edited by Andrei Bykov, Corinne Charbonnel, Patrick Hennebelle, Alexandre Marcowith, Georges Meynet, Maurizio Falanga and Rudolf van Steiger

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Padovani, M., Ivlev, A.V., Galli, D. et al. Impact of Low-Energy Cosmic Rays on Star Formation. Space Sci Rev 216, 29 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11214-020-00654-1

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