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Review of Dry and Wet Decentralized Sanitation Technologies for Rural Areas: Applicability, Challenges and Opportunities

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Abstract

This paper reviews decentralized sanitation technologies comparing dry and wet solutions currently available, discussing their operational requirements, applicability, effluent output quality, efficiencies, environmental impacts, costs, challenges, as well as their advantages and implementation difficulties. Sanitation technologies vary from conventional centralized systems, typically used on urban areas, to decentralized systems, more common in sparse dwellings and small communities of rural areas. Compared with centralized sanitation, decentralized sanitation is being progressively considered as more sustainable solution. Most do not require energy or expensive or sophisticated operation, being easy to adapt to different geographic contexts. A general lack of consistent regulatory control over most dry rudimentary systems and primary treatment systems may compromise water quality and human health. In the future, a mix of new policies and accurate accounting of the location, performance, and degree of failure of such systems should be performed. However, forcing users and communities to face the capital, operational, or repairing costs may be challenging. Since many of the discussed technologies may be important sources of contamination with nutrients, pathogens and toxic chemicals, new opportunities are still open, which include the conversion of dry rudimentary systems into dry controlled systems.

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Abbreviations

APY:

Aqua-privy

BOD:

Biochemical oxygen demand

C:N:

Carbon to nitrogen ratio

COD:

Chemical oxygen demand

CT:

Composting toilets

CW:

Constructed wetlands

DCS:

Dry controlled systems

DHP:

Dehydrating pits

DP:

Dry pits

DRS:

Dry rudimentary systems

DT:

Dry technologies

EU:

European Union

FA:

Fossa alterna

fp-WSP:

Facultative stabilization ponds

fws-CW:

Free water surface constructed wetland

GHG:

Greenhouse gases

HLR:

Hydraulic loading rate

HRT:

Hydraulic retention time

hssf-CW:

Horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland

mp-WSP:

Maturation ponds

OLR:

Organic loading rate

PFL:

Pour flush latrine

PBF:

Packet bed filters

PF:

Peat filters

PTS:

Primary treatment systems

SF:

Sand filters

SWIS:

Subsurface wastewater infiltration system

SKW:

Soakaway

SP:

Single pit

SS:

Septic systems

ST:

Septic tanks

STS:

Secondary treatment systems

SWIS:

Subsurface wastewater infiltration systems

TP:

Total phosphorus

TN:

Total nitrogen

TSS:

Total suspended solids

US:

United States

VCT:

Vermicomposting toilets

VCFT:

Vermicomposting flushing toilets

VF:

Vermifilters

VIP-dry:

Dry ventilated improved pit

VIP-wet:

Wet ventilated improved pit

vssf-CW:

Vertical subsurface flow constructed wetland

vssf-CW + hssf-CW:

Vertical subsurface flow constructed wetland and horizontal subsurface flow

W:D:

Wet to dry ratio

WP:

Wet pits

WSP:

Wastewater stabilization ponds

WT:

Wet technologies

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This research was supported by the private company FUTURAMB.

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    N. Lourenço

  2. Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability Center, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal

    L. M. Nunes

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Lourenço, N., Nunes, L.M. Review of Dry and Wet Decentralized Sanitation Technologies for Rural Areas: Applicability, Challenges and Opportunities. Environmental Management 65, 642–664 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-020-01268-7

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