Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Perspective
  • Published:

Women in immunology: 2020 and beyond

Abstract

Women have been at the forefront of tremendous achievements in immunology in the past decade. However, disparities still exist, limiting upward potential and further advancements. As four NIH intramural women scientists who care deeply about scientific progress and the progress of women in our field, we review ongoing challenges and discuss potential approaches to help advance the promotion of women in the sciences.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Rent or buy this article

Prices vary by article type

from$1.95

to$39.95

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Harrison, O. J. et al. Commensal-specific T cell plasticity promotes rapid tissue adaptation to injury. Science 363, eaat6280 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Rosshart, S. P. et al. Laboratory mice born to wild mice have natural microbiota and model human immune responses. Science 365, eaaw4361 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Tirosh, O. et al. Expanded skin virome in DOCK8-deficient patients. Nat. Med. 24, 1815–1821 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  4. Joglekar, P. & Segre, J. A. Building a translational microbiome toolbox. Cell 169, 378–380 (2017).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Iida, N. et al. Commensal bacteria control cancer response to therapy by modulating the tumor microenvironment. Science 342, 967–970 (2013).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Reynoso, G. V. et al. Lymph node conduits transport virions for rapid T cell activation. Nat. Immunol. 20, 602–612 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Ritter, A. T. et al. Cortical actin recovery at the immunological synapse leads to termination of lytic granule secretion in cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 114, E6585–E6594 (2017).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Bohrer, A. C., Tocheny, C., Assmann, M., Ganusov, V. V. & Mayer-Barber, K. D. Cutting Edge: IL-1R1 mediates host resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis by trans-protection of infected cells. J. Immunol. 201, 1645–1650 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Castillo, J. C., Ferreira, A. B. B., Trisnadi, N. & Barillas-Mury, C. Activation of mosquito complement antiplasmodial response requires cellular immunity. Sci. Immunol. 2, eaal1505 (2017).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Chiramel, A. I. et al. TRIM5α restricts flavivirus replication by targeting the viral protease for proteasomal degradation. Cell Rep. 27, 3269–3283.e6 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Johnson, K. E. E. & Ghedin, E. Quantifying between-host transmission in influenza virus infections. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a038422 (2019).

  12. Kardava, L. et al. IgG3 regulates tissue-like memory B cells in HIV-infected individuals. Nat. Immunol. 19, 1001–1012 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Ramsuran, V. et al. Elevated HLA-A expression impairs HIV control through inhibition of NKG2A-expressing cells. Science 359, 86–90 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Riggle, B. A. et al. CD8+ T cells target cerebrovasculature in children with cerebral malaria. J. Clin. Invest. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI133474 (2019).

  15. Warburton, A. et al. HPV integration hijacks and multimerizes a cellular enhancer to generate a viral-cellular super-enhancer that drives high viral oncogene expression. PLoS Genet. 14, e1007179 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Jessop, F. et al. Temporal manipulation of mitochondrial function by virulent Francisella tularensis to limit inflammation and control cell death. Infect. Immun. 86, e00744-19 (2018).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Bhatia, B. et al. Infection history of the blood-meal host dictates pathogenic potential of the Lyme disease spirochete within the feeding tick vector. PLoS Pathog. 14, e1006959 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Boso, G. et al. Evolution of the rodent Trim5 cluster is marked by divergent paralogous expansions and independent acquisitions of TrimCyp fusions. Sci. Rep. 9, 11263 (2019).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Chen, Z. et al. Role of humoral immunity against hepatitis B virus core antigen in the pathogenesis of acute liver failure. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115, E11369–E11378 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Faris, R., Moore, R. A., Ward, A., Sturdevant, D. E. & Priola, S. A. Mitochondrial respiration is impaired during late-stage hamster prion infection. J. Virol. 91, e00524-17 (2017).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Furuyama, W. & Marzi, A. Ebola virus: pathogenesis and countermeasure development. Annu. Rev. Virol. 6, 435–458 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Helmold Hait, S. et al. Early T follicular helper cell responses and germinal center reactions are associated with viremia control in immunized rhesus macaques. J. Virol. 93, e01687-18 (2019).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Lambert, L. H. et al. Antigen reversal identifies targets of opsonizing IgGs against pregnancy-associated malaria. Infect. Immun. 82, 4842–4853 (2014).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Lathrop, S. K. et al. Salmonella Typhimurium infection of human monocyte-derived macrophages. Curr. Protoc. Microbiol. 50, e56 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Matsuda, K. et al. A SIV molecular clone that targets the CNS and induces neuroAIDS in rhesus macaques. PLoS Pathog. 13, e1006538 (2017).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Percopo, C. M. et al. Critical adverse impact of IL-6 in acute pneumovirus infection. J. Immunol. 202, 871–882 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. van Loben Sels, J. M. & Green, K. Y. The antigenic topology of norovirus as defined by B and T cell epitope mapping: implications for universal vaccines and therapeutics. Viruses 11, E432 (2019).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Winkler, C. W. et al. Neuronal maturation reduces the type I IFN response to orthobunyavirus infection and leads to increased apoptosis of human neurons. J. Neuroinflammation 16, 229 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Horai, R. et al. Microbiota-dependent activation of an autoreactive T cell receptor provokes autoimmunity in an immunologically privileged site. Immunity 43, 343–353 (2015).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Kwong, B. et al. T-bet-dependent NKp46+ innate lymphoid cells regulate the onset of TH17-induced neuroinflammation. Nat. Immunol. 18, 1117–1127 (2017).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Mistry, P. et al. Transcriptomic, epigenetic, and functional analyses implicate neutrophil diversity in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116, 25222–25228 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Sun, W. et al. Antiviral adaptor MAVS promotes murine lupus with a B cell autonomous role. Front. Immunol. 10, 2452 (2019).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Dominguez, C., McCampbell, K. K., David, J. M. & Palena, C. Neutralization of IL-8 decreases tumor PMN-MDSCs and reduces mesenchymalization of claudin-low triple-negative breast cancer. JCI Insight 2, 94296 (2017).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Ishii, H. et al. miR-130a and miR-145 reprogram Gr-1+CD11b+ myeloid cells and inhibit tumor metastasis through improved host immunity. Nat. Commun. 9, 2611 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Zhu, F. et al. Autoreactive T cells and chronic fungal infection drive esophageal carcinogenesis. Cell Host Microbe 21, 478–493.e7 (2017).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  36. Arango, D. et al. Acetylation of cytidine in mRNA promotes translation efficiency. Cell 175, 1872–1886.e24 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Oh, K.-S. et al. Anti-inflammatory chromatinscape suggests alternative mechanisms of glucocorticoid receptor action. Immunity 47, 298–309.e5 (2017).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Singh, A. et al. Noncoding variations in Cyp24a1 gene are associated with Klotho-mediated aging phenotypes in different strains of mice. Aging Cell 18, e12949 (2019).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. Maul, R. W. et al. DNA polymerase iota functions in the generation of tandem mutations during somatic hypermutation of antibody genes. J. Exp. Med. 213, 1675–1683 (2016).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Prokunina-Olsson, L. Genetics of the human interferon lambda region. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 39, 599–608 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. Xiao, W. et al. Recurrent somatic JAK3 mutations in NK-cell enteropathy. Blood 134, 986–991 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Lamborn, I. T. et al. Recurrent rhinovirus infections in a child with inherited MDA5 deficiency. J. Exp. Med. 214, 1949–1972 (2017).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Lucas, C. L. et al. Dominant-activating germline mutations in the gene encoding the PI(3)K catalytic subunit p110δ result in T cell senescence and human immunodeficiency. Nat. Immunol. 15, 88–97 (2014).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Preite, S. et al. Hyperactivated PI3Kδ promotes self and commensal reactivity at the expense of optimal humoral immunity. Nat. Immunol. 19, 986–1000 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Zhou, Q. et al. Loss-of-function mutations in TNFAIP3 leading to A20 haploinsufficiency cause an early-onset autoinflammatory disease. Nat. Genet. 48, 67–73 (2016).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Dutzan, N. et al. A dysbiotic microbiome triggers TH17 cells to mediate oral mucosal immunopathology in mice and humans. Sci. Transl. Med. 10, eaat0797 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Weissler, K. A. & Frischmeyer-Guerrerio, P. A. Genetic evidence for the role of transforming growth factor-β in atopic phenotypes. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 60, 54–62 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Vaccari, M. et al. HIV vaccine candidate activation of hypoxia and the inflammasome in CD14+ monocytes is associated with a decreased risk of SIVmac251 acquisition. Nat. Med. 24, 847–856 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Cagigi, A. et al. Vaccine generation of protective Ebola antibodies and identification of conserved B-cell signatures. J. Infect. Dis. 218, S528–S536 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Carter, C. et al. Safety and immunogenicity of investigational seasonal influenza hemagglutinin DNA vaccine followed by trivalent inactivated vaccine administered intradermally or intramuscularly in healthy adults: an open-label randomized phase 1 clinical trial. PLoS One 14, e0222178 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Akkaya, M. et al. Second signals rescue B cells from activation-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and death. Nat. Immunol. 19, 871–884 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Arbore, G. et al. Complement receptor CD46 co-stimulates optimal human CD8+ T cell effector function via fatty acid metabolism. Nat. Commun. 9, 4186 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Clerc, I. et al. Entry of glucose- and glutamine-derived carbons into the citric acid cycle supports early steps of HIV-1 infection in CD4 T cells. Nat. Metab. 1, 717–730 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  54. Gegonne, A. et al. Immature CD8 single-positive thymocytes are a molecularly distinct subpopulation, selectively dependent on BRD4 for their differentiation. Cell Rep. 24, 117–129 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Rodrigues, P. F. et al. Distinct progenitor lineages contribute to the heterogeneity of plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Nat. Immunol. 19, 711–722 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Dey, A. et al. BRD4 directs hematopoietic stem cell development and modulates macrophage inflammatory responses. EMBO J. 38, e100293 (2019).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Chen, Y. H. et al. Phosphatidylserine vesicles enable efficient en bloc transmission of enteroviruses. Cell 160, 619–630 (2015).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Khan, M. M. et al. Host-pathogen dynamics through targeted secretome analysis of stimulated macrophages. J. Proteomics 189, 34–38 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Sil, P., Muse, G. & Martinez, J. A ravenous defense: canonical and non-canonical autophagy in immunity. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 50, 21–31 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Fry, T. J. et al. CD22-targeted CAR T cells induce remission in B-ALL that is naive or resistant to CD19-targeted CAR immunotherapy. Nat. Med. 24, 20–28 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Kim, M. Y. et al. Genetic inactivation of CD33 in hematopoietic stem cells to enable CAR T cell immunotherapy for acute myeloid leukemia. Cell 173, 1439–1453.e19 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Kuang, F. L. et al. Benralizumab for PDGFRA-negative hypereosinophilic syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 380, 1336–1346 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Lisco, A. et al. Identification of rare HIV-1-infected patients with extreme CD4+ T cell decline despite ART-mediated viral suppression. JCI Insight 4, 127113 (2019).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Lo, M. K. et al. Remdesivir (GS-5734) protects African green monkeys from Nipah virus challenge. Sci. Transl. Med. 11, eaau9242 (2019).

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  65. Sanchez, G. A. M. et al. JAK1/2 inhibition with baricitinib in the treatment of autoinflammatory interferonopathies. J. Clin. Invest. 128, 3041–3052 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  66. Boukhvalova, A. K. et al. Identifying and quantifying neurological disability via smartphone. Front. Neurol. 9, 740 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Crompton, J. G., Crompton, P. D. & Matzinger, P. Does atelectasis cause fever after surgery? Putting a damper on dogma. JAMA Surg. 154, 375–376 (2019).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Carr, P. L. et al. Gender differences in academic medicine: retention, rank, and leadership comparisons from the National Faculty Survey. Acad. Med. 93, 1694–1699 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  69. Gibbs, K. D., Basson, J., Xierali, I. M. & Broniatowski, D. A. Decoupling of the minority PhD talent pool and assistant professor hiring in medical school basic science departments in the US. Elife 5, e21393 (2016).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  70. Renfrow, J. J. et al. Tracking career paths of women in neurosurgery. Neurosurgery 82, 576–582 (2018).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Spector, N. D. et al. Women in pediatrics: progress, barriers, and opportunities for equity, diversity, and inclusion. Pediatrics 144, e20192149 (2019).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Silver, J. K. Understanding and addressing gender equity for women in neurology. Neurology 93, 538–549 (2019).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Barabino, G. et al. Solutions to gender balance in STEM fields through support, training, education and mentoring: report of the International Women in Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering Task Group. Sci. Eng. Ethics 26, 275–292 (2020).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Read, S., Butkus, R., Weissman, A. & Moyer, D. V. Compensation disparities by gender in internal medicine. Ann. Intern. Med. 169, 658–661 (2018).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Wiler, J. L., Rounds, K., McGowan, B. & Baird, J. Continuation of gender disparities in pay among academic emergency medicine physicians. Acad. Emerg. Med. 26, 286–292 (2019).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Butkus, R. et al. Achieving gender equity in physician compensation and career advancement: a position paper of the American College of Physicians. Ann. Intern. Med. 168, 721–723 (2018).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Hechtman, L. A. et al. NIH funding longevity by gender. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115, 7943–7948 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Silver, J. K. et al. Where are the women? The underrepresentation of women physicians among recognition award recipients from medical specialty societies. PMR 9, 804–815 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  79. Boiko, J. R., Anderson, A. J. M. & Gordon, R. A. Representation of women among academic grand rounds speakers. JAMA Intern. Med. 177, 722–724 (2017).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Nittrouer, C. L. et al. Gender disparities in colloquium speakers at top universities. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115, 104–108 (2018).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Sing, D. C., Jain, D. & Ouyang, D. Gender trends in authorship of spine-related academic literature—a 39-year perspective. Spine J. 17, 1749–1754 (2017).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Brown, M. A., Erdman, M. K., Munger, A. M. & Miller, A. N. Despite growing number of women surgeons, authorship gender disparity in orthopaedic literature persists over 30 years. Clin. Orthop. Relat. Res. https://doi.org/10.1097/CORR.0000000000000849 (2019).

  83. Bendels, M. H. K., Muller, R., Brueggmann, D. & Groneberg, D. A. Gender disparities in high-quality research revealed by Nature Index journals. PLoS One 13, e0189136 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Thomas, E. G. et al. Gender disparities in invited commentary authorship in 2459 medical journals. JAMA Netw. Open 2, e1913682 (2019).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Lerchenmueller, M. J., Sorenson, O. & Jena, A. B. Gender differences in how scientists present the importance of their research: observational study. BMJ 367, l6573 (2019).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Murray, D. et al. Author-reviewer homophily in peer review. Preprint at bioRxiv https://doi.org/10.1101/400515v3 (2019).

  87. Strolger, L. & Natarajan, P. Doling out Hubble time with dual-anonymous evaluation. Physics Today https://physicstoday.scitation.org/do/10.1063/PT.6.3.20190301a/full/ (2019).

  88. Sommers, C. Blind spots in the ‘Blind Audition’ study. Wall Street Journal (20 October 2019).

  89. Goldin, C. & Rouse, C. Orchestrating impartiality: the impact of ‘blind’ auditions on female musicians. Am. Econ. Rev. 90, 715–741 (2000).

    Google Scholar 

  90. Fassiotto, M., Simard, C., Sandborg, C., Valantine, H. & Raymond, J. An integrated career coaching and time-banking system promoting flexibility, wellness, and success: a pilot program at Stanford University School of Medicine. Acad. Med. 93, 881–887 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  91. Laver, K. E. et al. A systematic review of interventions to support the careers of women in academic medicine and other disciplines. BMJ Open 8, e020380 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  92. Richman, R. C., Morahan, P. S., Cohen, D. W. & McDade, S. A. Advancing women and closing the leadership gap: the Executive Leadership in Academic Medicine (ELAM) program experience. J. Womens Health Gend. Based Med. 10, 271–277 (2001).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Wong, E. Y. et al. Promoting the advancement of minority women faculty in academic medicine: the National Centers of Excellence in Women’s Health. J. Womens Health Gend. Based Med. 10, 541–550 (2001).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Sheridan, J. T., Fine, E., Pribbenow, C. M., Handelsman, J. & Carnes, M. Searching for excellence & diversity: increasing the hiring of women faculty at one academic medical center. Acad. Med. 85, 999–1007 (2010).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  95. Dworkin, J. D. et al. The extent and drivers of gender imbalance in neuroscience reference lists. Preprint at biorXiv https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.01.03.894378 (2020).

  96. Broderick, N. A. & Casadevall, A. Gender inequalities among authors who contributed equally. Elife 8, 3639 (2019).

    Google Scholar 

  97. Fox, C. W., Ritchey, J. P. & Paine, C. E. T. Patterns of authorship in ecology and evolution: first, last, and corresponding authorship vary with gender and geography. Ecol. Evol. 8, 11492–11507 (2018).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. Schumann, K. & Ross, M. Why women apologize more than men: gender differences in thresholds for perceiving offensive behavior. Psychol. Sci. 21, 1649–1655 (2010).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Williams, J. C. Hacking Tech’s Diversity Problem. Harvard Business Review (October 2014).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Cynthia Dunbar, Brigitte Widemann, Carl Hashimoto, Hannah Valantine, Carol Thiele, Meredith Shaffer, Deborah Citrin and Tom Misteli for critical reading. Funding was provided in part by the Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (S.K.P. and P.L.S.) and National Cancer Institute (N.N.S. and N.T.), National Institutes of Health. The content of this publication does not reflect the views or policies of the Department of Health and Human Services, nor does the mention of trade names, commercial products or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Susan K. Pierce, Pamela L. Schwartzberg, Nirali N. Shah or Naomi Taylor.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Pierce, S.K., Schwartzberg, P.L., Shah, N.N. et al. Women in immunology: 2020 and beyond. Nat Immunol 21, 254–258 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-020-0618-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-020-0618-4

This article is cited by

Search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing