Enhancing Efficacy, Performance, and Reliability of Cannabis Edibles: Insights from Lipid Bioavailability Studies

Literature Cited

1. Abrams DI. 2018. The therapeutic effects of cannabis and cannabinoids: an update from the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine report. Eur. J. Intern. Med. 49:7–11
   [Google Scholar]
2. Akhtar MT, Mustafa NR, Verpoorte R 2015. Hydroxylation and glycosylation of delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol by Catharanthus roseus cell suspension culture. Biocatal. Biotransform. 33:279–86
   [Google Scholar]
3. Alfulaij N, Meiners F, Michalek J, Small-Howard AL, Turner HC, Stokes AJ 2018. Cannabinoids, the heart of the matter. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 7:1430006489
   [Google Scholar]
4. Beal K. 2019. Considerations in the addition of cannabis to chocolate. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 28:14–17
   [Google Scholar]
5. Bochicchio S, Barba AA, Grassi G, Lamberti G 2016. Vitamin delivery: carriers based on nanoliposomes produced via ultrasonic irradiation. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 69:9–16
   [Google Scholar]
6. Bonini SA, Premoli M, Tambaro S, Kumar A, Maccarinelli G et al. 2018. Cannabis sativa: a comprehensive ethnopharmacological review of a medicinal plant with a long history. J. Ethnopharmacol. 227:300–15
   [Google Scholar]
7. Caddeo C, Manconi M, Fadda AM, Lai F, Lampis S et al. 2013. Nanocarriers for antioxidant resveratrol: formulation approach, vesicle self-assembly and stability evaluation. Colloids Surf. B 111:327–32
   [Google Scholar]
8. Cani PD, Plovier H, Van Hul M, Geurts L, Delzenne NM et al. 2016. Endocannabinoids: at the crossroads between the gut microbiota and host metabolism. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 12:133–43
   [Google Scholar]
9. Chacón-Ordóñez T, Carle R, Schweiggert R 2018. Bioaccessibility of carotenoids from plant and animal foods. J. Sci. Food Agric. 99:73220–39
   [Google Scholar]
10. Chen F, Liang L, Zhang ZP, Deng ZY, Decker EA, McClements DJ 2017. Inhibition of lipid oxidation in nanoemulsions and filled microgels fortified with omega-3 fatty acids using casein as a natural antioxidant. Food Hydrocoll 63:240–48
    [Google Scholar]
11. Chen P, Rogers MA. 2019. Opportunities and challenges in developing orally-administered cannabis edibles. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 28:7–13
    [Google Scholar]
12. Cherniakov I, Izgelov D, Domb AJ, Hoffman A 2017. The effect of Pro NanoLipospheres (PNL) formulation containing natural absorption enhancers on the oral bioavailability of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) in a rat model. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 109:21–30
    [Google Scholar]
13. Chun JY, Choi MJ, Min SG, Weiss J 2013. Formation and stability of multiple-layered liposomes by layer-by-layer electrostatic deposition of biopolymers. Food Hydrocoll 30:249–57
    [Google Scholar]
14. Citti C, Braghiroli D, Vandelli MA, Cannazza G 2018. Pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis of cannabinoids: a critical review. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 147:565–79
    [Google Scholar]
15. Daeihamed M, Dadashzadeh S, Haeri A, Akhlaghi MF 2017. Potential of liposomes for enhancement of oral drug absorption. Curr. Drug Deliv. 14:289–303
    [Google Scholar]
16. Das S, Chaudhury A, Ng KY 2011. Preparation and evaluation of zinc-pectin-chitosan composite particles for drug delivery to the colon: role of chitosan in modifying in vitro and in vivo drug release. Int. J. Pharm. 406:11–20
    [Google Scholar]
17. Dash S, Xiao CT, Morgantini C, Lewis GF 2015. New insights into the regulation of chylomicron production. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 35:265–94
    [Google Scholar]
18. Davidov-Pardo G, McClements DJ. 2015. Nutraceutical delivery systems: resveratrol encapsulation in grape seed oil nanoemulsions formed by spontaneous emulsification. Food Chem 167:205–12
    [Google Scholar]
19. de la Ossa DHP, Gil-Alegre ME, Ligresti A, Aberturas MD, Molpeceres J et al. 2013. Preparation and characterization of delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol-loaded biodegradable polymeric microparticles and their antitumoral efficacy on cancer cell lines. J. Drug Target. 21:710–18
    [Google Scholar]
20. de la Ossa DHP, Ligresti A, Gil-Alegre ME, Aberturas MR, Molpeceres J et al. 2012. Poly-epsilon-caprolactone microspheres as a drug delivery system for cannabinoid administration: development, characterization and in vitro evaluation of their antitumoral efficacy. J. Control. Release 161:927–32
    [Google Scholar]
21. Duran-Lobato M, Martin-Banderas L, Lopes R, Goncalves LMD, Fernandez-Arevalo M, Almeida AJ 2016. Lipid nanoparticles as an emerging platform for cannabinoid delivery: physicochemical optimization and biocompatibility. Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 42:190–98
    [Google Scholar]
22. Durst R, Lotan C. 2011. The potential for clinical use of cannabinoids in treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Cardiovasc. Ther. 29:17–22
    [Google Scholar]
23. Fan YJ, Xie X, Zhang BF, Zhang ZR 2011. Absorption and antioxidant activity of lycopene nanoliposomes in vivo. Curr. Top. Nutraceutical Res. 9:131–37
    [Google Scholar]
24. Feeney OM, Crum MF, McEvoy CL, Trevaskis NL, Williams HD et al. 2016. 50 years of oral lipid-based formulations: provenance, progress and future perspectives. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 101:167–94
    [Google Scholar]
25. Garrett ER, Tsau J. 1974. Stability of tetrahydrocannabinols 1. J. Pharm. Sci. 63:1563–74
    [Google Scholar]
26. Gleeson JP. 2017. Diet, food components and the intestinal barrier. Nutr. Bull. 42:123–31
    [Google Scholar]
27. Grotenhermen F. 2003. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 42:327–60
    [Google Scholar]
28. Gruden G, Barutta F, Kunos G, Pacher P 2016. Role of the endocannabinoid system in diabetes and diabetic complications. Br. J. Pharmacol. 173:1116–27
    [Google Scholar]
29. Haham M, Ish-Shalom S, Nodelman M, Duek I, Segal E et al. 2012. Stability and bioavailability of vitamin D nanoencapsulated in casein micelles. Food Funct 3:737–44
    [Google Scholar]
30. Harvey DJ. 1999. Absorption, distribution, and biotransformation of cannabinoids. Marihuana and Medicine GG Nahas, KM Sutin, DJ Harvey, S Agurell 91–103 Totowa, NJ: Humana Press
    [Google Scholar]
31. Hillard CJ, Harris RA, Bloom AS 1985. Effects of the cannabinoids on physical properties of brain membranes and phospholipid vesicles: fluorescence studies. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 232:579–88
    [Google Scholar]
32. Hilton E. 2019. Marijuana, Cannabis, and Cannabinoids Middletown, DE: Eric Hilton
    [Google Scholar]
33. Horvath B, Mukhopadhyay P, Hasko G, Pacher P 2012. The endocannabinoid system and plant-derived cannabinoids in diabetes and diabetic complications. Am. J. Pathol. 180:432–42
    [Google Scholar]
34. Huang QR, Yu HL, Ru QM 2010. Bioavailability and delivery of nutraceuticals using nanotechnology. J. Food Sci. 75:R50–57
    [Google Scholar]
35. Huestis MA. 1999. Pharmacokinetics of THC in inhaled and oral preparation. Marihuana and Medicine GG Nahas, KM Sutin, DJ Harvey, S Agurell 105–16 Totowa, NJ: Humana Press
    [Google Scholar]
36. Huestis MA. 2007. Human cannabinoid pharmacokinetics. Chem. Biodivers. 4:1770–804
    [Google Scholar]
37. Hung CF, Chen JK, Liao MH, Lo HM, Fang JY 2006. Development and evaluation of emulsion-liposome blends for resveratrol delivery. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 6:2950–58
    [Google Scholar]
38. Isailovic BD, Kostic IT, Zvonar A, Dordevic VB, Gasperlin M et al. 2013. Resveratrol loaded liposomes produced by different techniques. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 19:181–89
    [Google Scholar]
39. Johnson RM, Brooks-Russell A, Ma M, Fairman BJ, Tolliver RL, Levinson AH 2016. Usual modes of marijuana consumption among high school students in Colorado. J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs 77:580–88
    [Google Scholar]
40. Joyce P, Whitby CP, Prestidge CA 2016. Nanostructuring biomaterials with specific activities towards digestive enzymes for controlled gastrointestinal absorption of lipophilic bioactive molecules. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 237:52–75
    [Google Scholar]
41. Joye IJ, McClements DJ. 2014. Biopolymer-based nanoparticles and microparticles: fabrication, characterization, and application. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 19:417–27
    [Google Scholar]
42. Komaiko JS, McClements DJ. 2016. Formation of food-grade nanoemulsions using low-energy preparation methods: a review of available methods. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 15:331–52
    [Google Scholar]
43. Kopec RE, Failla ML. 2018. Recent advances in the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of carotenoids and effects of other dietary lipophiles. J. Food Compos. Anal. 68:16–30
    [Google Scholar]
44. Koziolek M, Carriere F, Porter CJH 2018. Lipids in the stomach: implications for the evaluation of food effects on oral drug absorption. Pharm. Res. 35:355
    [Google Scholar]
45. Laye C, McClements DJ, Weiss J 2008. Formation of biopolymer-coated liposomes by electrostatic deposition of chitosan. J. Food Sci. 73:N7–15
    [Google Scholar]
46. Lazzari P, Fadda P, Marchese G, Casu GL, Pani L 2010. Antinociceptive activity of delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol non-ionic microemulsions. Int. J. Pharm. 393:238–43
    [Google Scholar]
47. Leghissa A, Hildenbrand ZL, Schug KA 2018. A review of methods for the chemical characterization of cannabis natural products. J. Sep. Sci. 41:398–415
    [Google Scholar]
48. Lindholst C. 2010. Long term stability of cannabis resin and cannabis extracts. Aust. J. Forensic Sci. 42:181–90
    [Google Scholar]
49. Liu X, Bi JF, Xiao H, McClements DJ 2015. Increasing carotenoid bioaccessibility from yellow peppers using excipient emulsions: impact of lipid type and thermal processing. J. Agric. Food Chem. 63:8534–43
    [Google Scholar]
50. Lucas CJ, Galettis P, Schneider J 2018. The pharmacokinetics and the pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 84:2477–82
    [Google Scholar]
51. Lundquist P, Artursson P. 2016. Oral absorption of peptides and nanoparticles across the human intestine: opportunities, limitations and studies in human tissues. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 106:256–76
    [Google Scholar]
52. Maherani B, Arab-Tehrany E, Mozafari MR, Gaiani C, Linder M 2011. Liposomes: a review of manufacturing techniques and targeting strategies. Curr. Nanosci. 7:436–52
    [Google Scholar]
53. Malochleb M. 2019. Why cannabis edibles are creating a buzz. Food Technol 7:32–44
    [Google Scholar]
54. Managuli RS, Raut SY, Reddy MS, Mutalik S 2018. Targeting the intestinal lymphatic system: a versatile path for enhanced oral bioavailability of drugs. Expert Opin. Drug Deliv. 15:787–804
    [Google Scholar]
55. Mannila J, Jarvinen T, Jarvinen K, Tervonen J, Jarho P 2006. Sublingual administration of delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol/beta-cyclodextrin complex increases the bioavailability of delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol in rabbits. Life Sci 78:1911–14
    [Google Scholar]
56. Mansbach CM, Siddiqi S. 2016. Control of chylomicron export from the intestine. Am. J. Physiol.-Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 310:G659–68
    [Google Scholar]
57. Marangoni IP, Marangoni AG. 2019. Cannabis edibles: dosing, encapsulation, and stability considerations. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 28:1–6
    [Google Scholar]
58. Martin JH, Schneider J, Lucas CJ, Galettis P 2018. Exogenous cannabinoid efficacy: merely a pharmacokinetic interaction?. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 57:539–45
    [Google Scholar]
59. Matalanis A, Jones OG, McClements DJ 2011. Structured biopolymer-based delivery systems for encapsulation, protection, and release of lipophilic compounds. Food Hydrocoll 25:1865–80
    [Google Scholar]
60. Maurya N, Velmurugan BK. 2018. Therapeutic applications of cannabinoids. Chemico-Biol. Interact. 293:77–88
    [Google Scholar]
61. Mavromoustakos T, Yang DP, Charalambous A, Herbette LG, Makriyannis A 1990. Study of the topography of cannabinoids in model membranes using X-ray diffraction. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1024:336–44
    [Google Scholar]
62. McClements DJ. 2012. Nanoemulsions versus microemulsions: terminology, differences, and similarities. Soft Matter 8:1719–29
    [Google Scholar]
63. McClements DJ. 2014. Nanoparticle- and Microparticle-Based Delivery Systems: Encapsulation, Protection, and Release of Active Components Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
    [Google Scholar]
64. McClements DJ. 2017a. Designing biopolymer microgels to encapsulate, protect and deliver bioactive components: physicochemical aspects. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 240:31–59
    [Google Scholar]
65. McClements DJ. 2017b. Recent progress in hydrogel delivery systems for improving nutraceutical bioavailability. Food Hydrocoll 68:238–45
    [Google Scholar]
66. McClements DJ. 2018. Enhanced delivery of lipophilic bioactives using emulsions: a review of major factors affecting vitamin, nutraceutical, and lipid bioaccessibility. Food Funct 9:22–41
    [Google Scholar]
67. McClements DJ, Gumus CE. 2016. Natural emulsifiers: biosurfactants, phospholipids, biopolymers, and colloidal particles: molecular and physicochemical basis of functional performance. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 234:3–26
    [Google Scholar]
68. McClements DJ, Li F, Xiao H 2015a. The nutraceutical bioavailability classification scheme: classifying nutraceuticals according to factors limiting their oral bioavailability. Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 6:299–327
    [Google Scholar]
69. McClements DJ, Rao J. 2011. Food-grade nanoemulsions: formulation, fabrication, properties, performance, biological fate, and potential toxicity. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 51:285–330
    [Google Scholar]
70. McClements DJ, Xiao H. 2014. Excipient foods: designing food matrices that improve the oral bioavailability of pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. Food Funct 5:1320–33
    [Google Scholar]
71. McClements DJ, Zou LQ, Zhang RJ, Salvia-Trujillo L, Kumosani T, Xiao H 2015b. Enhancing nutraceutical performance using excipient foods: designing food structures and compositions to increase bioavailability. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 14:824–47
    [Google Scholar]
72. McGee H. 2004. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen New York: Scribner
    [Google Scholar]
73. Menendez-Aguirre O, Kessler A, Stuetz W, Grune T, Weiss J, Hinrichs J 2014. Increased loading of vitamin D-2 in reassembled casein micelles with temperature-modulated high pressure treatment. Food Res. Int. 64:74–80
    [Google Scholar]
74. Michelon M, Mantovani RA, Sinigaglia-Coimbra R, De La Torre LG, Cunha RL 2016. Structural characterization of β-carotene-incorporated nanovesicles produced with non-purified phospholipids. Food Res. Int. 79:95–105
    [Google Scholar]
75. Mikulcova V, Kasparkova V, Humpolicek P, Bunkova L 2017. Formulation, characterization and properties of hemp seed oil and its emulsions. Molecules 22:5E700
    [Google Scholar]
76. Millar SA, Stone NL, Yates AS, O'Sullivan SE 2018. A systematic review on the pharmacokinetics of cannabidiol in humans. Front. Pharmacol. 9:1365
    [Google Scholar]
77. Minekus M, Alminger M, Alvito P, Ballance S, Bohn T et al. 2014. A standardised static in vitro digestion method suitable for food: an international consensus. Food Funct 5:1113–24
    [Google Scholar]
78. Mitra S, Dungan SR. 2001. Cholesterol solubilization in aqueous micellar solutions of quillaja saponin, bile salts, or nonionic surfactants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 49:384–94
    [Google Scholar]
79. Molnar A, Fu SL. 2016. Techniques and technologies for the bioanalysis of Sativex^®, metabolites and related compounds. Bioanalysis 8:829–45
    [Google Scholar]
80. Mozafari MR, Johnson C, Hatziantoniou S, Demetzos C 2008. Nanoliposomes and their applications in food nanotechnology. J. Liposome Res. 18:309–27
    [Google Scholar]
81. Muchtar S, Almog S, Torracca MT, Saettone MF, Benita S 1992. A submicron emulsion as ocular vehicle for delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol: effect on intraocular pressure in rabbits. Ophthalmic Res 24:142–49
    [Google Scholar]
82. Murgia S, Fadda P, Colafemmina G, Angelico R, Corrado L et al. 2013. Characterization of the Solutol^® HS15/water phase diagram and the impact of the delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol solubilization. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 390:129–36
    [Google Scholar]
83. Murti M, Baumann N. 2017. Pediatric presentations and risks from consuming cannabis edibles. B.C. Med. J. 59:398–99
    [Google Scholar]
84. Narang AS, Delmarre D, Gao D 2007. Stable drug encapsulation in micelles and microemulsions. Int. J. Pharm. 345:9–25
    [Google Scholar]
85. Natl. Acad. Sci 2017. The Health Effects of Cannabis and Cannabinoids: The Current State of Evidence and Recommendations for Research Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
    [Google Scholar]
86. Naveh N, Weissman C, Muchtar S, Benita S, Mechoulam R 2000. A submicron emulsion of HU-211, a synthetic cannabinoid, reduces intraocular pressure in rabbits. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 238:334–38
    [Google Scholar]
87. Newton-Howes G. 2018. The challenges of “medical cannabis” and mental health: a clinical perspective. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 84:2499–501
    [Google Scholar]
88. Nguyen TA, Tang QD, Doan DCT, Dang MC 2016. Micro and nano liposome vesicles containing curcumin for a drug delivery system. Adv. Nat. Sci. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 7:035003
    [Google Scholar]
89. Niu ZG, Conejos-Sanchez I, Griffin BT, O'Driscoll CM, Alonso MJ 2016. Lipid-based nanocarriers for oral peptide delivery. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 106:337–54
    [Google Scholar]
90. Olivecrona G. 2016. Role of lipoprotein lipase in lipid metabolism. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 27:233–41
    [Google Scholar]
91. Pacher P, Steffens S, Hasko G, Schindler TH, Kunos G 2018. Cardiovascular effects of marijuana and synthetic cannabinoids: the good, the bad, and the ugly. Nat. Rev. Cardiol. 15:151–66
    [Google Scholar]
92. Perezreyes M, Wall ME. 1982. Presence of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in human milk. New Engl. J. Med. 307:819–20
    [Google Scholar]
93. Peschel W. 2016. Quality control of traditional cannabis tinctures: pattern, markers, and stability. Sci. Pharm. 84:567–84
    [Google Scholar]
94. Peters J, Chien J. 2018. Contemporary routes of cannabis consumption: a primer for clinicians. J. Am. Osteopath. Assoc. 118:67–70
    [Google Scholar]
95. Porter CJH, Trevaskis NL, Charman WN 2007. Lipids and lipid-based formulations: optimizing the oral delivery of lipophilic drugs. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 6:231–48
    [Google Scholar]
96. Qian C, Decker EA, Xiao H, McClements DJ 2012. Nanoemulsion delivery systems: influence of carrier oil on β-carotene bioaccessibility. Food Chem 135:1440–47
    [Google Scholar]
97. Raikos V, Konstantinidi V, Duthie G 2015. Processing and storage effects on the oxidative stability of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) oil-in-water emulsions. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 50:2316–22
    [Google Scholar]
98. Richardson TH. 2010. Cannabis use and mental health: a review of recent epidemiological research. Int. J. Pharmacol. 6:796–807
    [Google Scholar]
99. Rossi F, Punzo F, Umano GR, Argenziano M, Del Giudice EM 2018. Role of cannabinoids in obesity. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 19:6E2690
    [Google Scholar]
100. Roy A, Saha S, Choudhury A, Bahadur S 2016. Bioenhancement of curcumin by combined approaches of adjuvants and liposomal fabrication. Asian J. Pharm. 10:S688–92
     [Google Scholar]
101. Russell C, Rueda S, Room R, Tyndall M, Fisher B 2018. Routes of administration for cannabis use—basic prevalence and related health outcomes: a scoping review and synthesis. Int. J. Drug Policy 52:87–96
     [Google Scholar]
102. Salvia-Trujillo L, Qian C, Martin-Belloso O, McClements DJ 2013. Modulating beta-carotene bioaccessibility by controlling oil composition and concentration in edible nanoemulsions. Food Chem 139:878–84
     [Google Scholar]
103. Sawant RR, Torchilin VP. 2010. Liposomes as “smart” pharmaceutical nanocarriers. Soft Matter 6:4026–44
     [Google Scholar]
104. Schimpel C, Teubl B, Absenger M, Meindl C, Frohlich E et al. 2014. Development of an advanced intestinal in vitro triple culture permeability model to study transport of nanoparticles. Mol. Pharm. 11:808–18
     [Google Scholar]
105. Schwartz DA. 2018. Cannabis and the lung. Int. J. Ment. Health Addict. 16:797–800
     [Google Scholar]
106. Sidney S. 2016. Marijuana use and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a review. Curr. Diabetes Rep. 16:11117
     [Google Scholar]
107. Silva AC, Lopes CM, Lobo JMS, Amaral MH 2015. Delivery systems for biopharmaceuticals. Part II: liposomes, micelles, microemulsions and dendrimers. Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol. 16:955–65
     [Google Scholar]
108. Sledzinski P, Zeyland J, Slomski R, Nowak A 2018. The current state and future perspectives of cannabinoids in cancer biology. Cancer Med 7:765–75
     [Google Scholar]
109. Stott CG, White L, Wright S, Wilbraham D, Guy GW 2013. A phase I study to assess the effect of food on the single dose bioavailability of the THC/CBD oromucosal spray. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 69:825–34
     [Google Scholar]
110. Takahashi M, Uechi S, Takara K, Asikin Y, Wada K 2009. Evaluation of an oral carrier system in rats: bioavailability and antioxidant properties of liposome-encapsulated curcumin. J. Agric. Food Chem. 57:9141–46
     [Google Scholar]
111. Takechi-Haraya Y, Sakai-Kato K, Abe Y, Kawanishi T, Okuda H, Goda Y 2016. Atomic force microscopic analysis of the effect of lipid composition on liposome membrane rigidity. Langmuir 32:6074–82
     [Google Scholar]
112. Taschwer M, Schmid MG. 2015. Determination of the relative percentage distribution of THCA and delta(9)-THC in herbal cannabis seized in Austria: impact of different storage temperatures on stability. Forensic Sci. Int. 254:167–71
     [Google Scholar]
113. Taylor TM, Davidson PM, Bruce BD, Weiss J 2005. Liposomal nanocapsules in food science and agriculture. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 45:587–605
     [Google Scholar]
114. Toniazzo T, Berbel IF, Cho S, Favaro-Trindade CS, Moraes ICF, Pinho SC 2014. β-Carotene-loaded liposome dispersions stabilized with xanthan and guar gums: physico-chemical stability and feasibility of application in yogurt. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 59:1265–73
     [Google Scholar]
115. Torres O, Murray B, Sarkar A 2016. Emulsion microgel particles: novel encapsulation strategy for lipophilic molecules. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 55:98–108
     [Google Scholar]
116. Torres O, Murray B, Sarkar A 2017. Design of novel emulsion microgel particles of tuneable size. Food Hydrocoll 71:47–59
     [Google Scholar]
117. Trofin IG, Dabija G, Vaireanu DI, Filipescu L 2012a. Long-term storage and cannabis oil stability. Rev. Chim. 63:293–97
     [Google Scholar]
118. Trofin IG, Dabija G, Vaireanu DI, Filipescu L 2012b. The influence of long-term storage conditions on the stability of cannabinoids derived from cannabis resin. Rev. Chim. 63:422–27
     [Google Scholar]
119. Turgeman I, Bar-Sela G. 2019. Cannabis for cancer—illusion or the tip of an iceberg: a review of the evidence for the use of cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids in oncology. Expert Opin. Investig. Drugs 28:285–96
     [Google Scholar]
120. Turner CE, Hadley KW, Fetterman PS, Doorenbos NJ, Quimby MW, Waller C 1973. Constituents of Cannabis sativa L. IV. Stability of cannabinoids in stored plant material. J. Pharm. Sci. 62:1601–5
     [Google Scholar]
121. Vandrey R, Herrmann ES, Mitchell JM, Bigelow GE, Flegel R et al. 2017. Pharmacokinetic profile of oral cannabis in humans: blood and oral fluid disposition and relation to pharmacodynamic outcomes. J. Anal. Toxicol. 41:83–99
     [Google Scholar]
122. Velasco G, Sanchez C, Guzman M 2016. Anticancer mechanisms of cannabinoids. Curr. Oncol. 23:S23–32
     [Google Scholar]
123. Vincekovic M, Viskic M, Juric S, Giacometti J, Kovacevic DB et al. 2017. Innovative technologies for encapsulation of Mediterranean plants extracts. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 69:1–12
     [Google Scholar]
124. Vo KT, Horng H, Li K, Ho RY, Wu AHB et al. 2018. Cannabis intoxication case series: the dangers of edibles containing tetrahydrocannabinol. Ann. Emerg. Med. 71:306–13
     [Google Scholar]
125. Walsh Z, Gonzalez R, Crosby K, Thiessen MS, Carroll C, Bonn-Miller MO 2017. Medical cannabis and mental health: a guided systematic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 51:15–29
     [Google Scholar]
126. Wang TY, Liu M, Portincasa P, Wang DQ 2013. New insights into the molecular mechanism of intestinal fatty acid absorption. Eur. J. Clin. Investig. 43:1203–23
     [Google Scholar]
127. Waterreus A, Di Prinzio P, Watts GF, Castle D, Galletly C, Morgan VA 2016. Metabolic syndrome in people with a psychotic illness: Is cannabis protective. ? Psychol. Med. 46:1651–62
     [Google Scholar]
128. Worth T. 2019. Unpicking the entourage effect. Nature 572:S12–13
     [Google Scholar]
129. Yao MF, Xiao H, McClements DJ 2014. Delivery of lipophilic bioactives: assembly, disassembly, and reassembly of lipid nanoparticles. Annu. Rev. Food Sci. Technol. 5:53–81
     [Google Scholar]
130. Yeap YY, Trevaskis NL, Porter CJ 2013. Lipid absorption triggers drug supersaturation at the intestinal unstirred water layer and promotes drug absorption from mixed micelles. Pharm. Res. 30:3045–58
     [Google Scholar]
131. Zanda MT, Fattore L. 2018. Old and new synthetic cannabinoids: lessons from animal models. Drug Metab. Rev. 50:54–64
     [Google Scholar]
132. Zengin G, Menghini L, Di Sotto A, Mancinelli R, Sisto F et al. 2018. Chromatographic analyses, in vitro biological activities, and cytotoxicity of Cannabis sativa L. essential oil: a multidisciplinary study. Molecules 23:12E3266
     [Google Scholar]
133. Zgair A, Lee JB, Wong JCM, Taha DA, Aram J et al. 2017. Oral administration of cannabis with lipids leads to high levels of cannabinoids in the intestinal lymphatic system and prominent immunomodulation. Sci. Rep. 7:14542
     [Google Scholar]
134. Zgair A, Wong JCM, Lee JB, Mistry J, Sivak O et al. 2016. Dietary fats and pharmaceutical lipid excipients increase systemic exposure to orally administered cannabis and cannabis-based medicines. Am. J. Transl. Res. 8:3448–59
     [Google Scholar]
135. Zhang ZP, Zhang RJ, McClements DJ 2016. Encapsulation of β-carotene in alginate-based hydrogel beads: impact on physicochemical stability and bioaccessibility. Food Hydrocoll 61:1–10
     [Google Scholar]
136. Zhao LS, Temelli F, Curtis JM, Chen LY 2017. Encapsulation of lutein in liposomes using supercritical carbon dioxide. Food Res. Int. 100:168–79
     [Google Scholar]