Abstract
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been linked with impairment in cognitive functioning, but anomalies appear to arise on several levels, masking the true nature of the relationship. On one level, there is a blurring of the emotional and physical causes of cognitive dysfunction, especially with memory problems that are similar to those due to neurological disorders. At other levels, problems are evident due to issues such as overgeneralizing from specific populations to the general population, and the use of narrow-focused neuropsychological assessment instruments that neither dissociate among precise memory components nor relate to everyday situations. In this review we highlight methodological problems and concerns, and make suggestions to establish valid links between PTSD and cognitive dysfunction.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd edn., American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn., text Rev., American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
Archibald, H. C., and Tuddenham, R. D. (1965). Persistent stress reaction after combat. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 12: 475–481.
Axelson, D. A., Doraiswarmy, P. M., McDonald, W. M., Boyko, O. B., Tupler, L. A., Patterson, L. J., et al. (1993). Hypercortisolemia and hippocampal changes in depression. Psychiatry Res. 47: 163–173.
Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M. Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4: 561–571.
Barrett, D. H., Green, M. L., Morris, R. G., Giles, W. H., and Croft, J. B. (1996). Cognitive functioning and post-traumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 15: 1492–1494.
Baddeley, A. D. (1995). The psychology of memory. In A. D. Baddeley, B. A. Wilson, and F. A. Watts (Eds.), Handbook of Memory Disorders. (pp. 3–25). London: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Bennett-Levy J., Polkey, C. E., and Powell, G. E. (1980). Self-report of memory skills after temporal lobectomy: The effect of clinical variables. Cortex 16: 543–557.
Benton, A. L., and Hamsher, K. (1978). Multilingual Aphasia Examination Manual, rev., University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA.
Berg, E. A. (1948). A simple objective test for measuring flexibility in thinking. J. Gen. Psychol. 39: 15–22.
Black, D., Weathers, F., Nagy, D., Laoupek, G., Klauminzer, D., Charney, D., and et al. (1990). Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale, National Centre for Post-traumatic Stress Disorder, New Haven, CT.
Blanchard, E. B., Hickling, E. J., Mitnick, N., Taylor, A. E., Loos, W. R., and Buckley, T. C. (1995). The impact of severity of physical injury and perception of life threat in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder in motor vehicle accident victims. Behav. Res. Ther. 33: 529–534.
Branca, B., Giordani, B., Lutz, T., and Saper, J. R. (1996). Self-report of cognition and objective test performance in posttraumatic headache. Headache 36: 300–306.
Bremner, J. D., Randall, P., Scott, T. M., Bronen, R. A., Seibyl, J. P., Southwick, S. M., et al. (1995a). MRI-based measures of hippocampal volume in patients with PTSD. Am. J. Psychiatry 152: 973–981.
Bremner, J. D., Randall, P., Scott, T. M., Capelli, S., Delaney, R., McCarthy, G., et al. (1995b). Deficits in short-term memory in adult survivors of childhood abuse. Psychiatry Res. 59: 97–107.
Bremner, J. D., Randall, P., Vermetten, E., Staib, L., Bronen, R. A., Mazure, C., et al. (1997). Magnetic resonance imaging-based measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood physical and sexual abuse—a preliminary report. Biol. Psychiatry 41: 23–32.
Bremner, J. D., Scott, T. M., Delaney, R. C., Southwick, S. M., Mason, J. W., Johnson, D. R., et al. (1993). Deficits in short-term memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 150: 1015–1019.
Breslau, N., Davis, G., Andreski, P., and Peterson, E. (1991). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 48: 216–222.
Breslau, N., Kessler, R. C., and Chilcott, H. D. (1998). Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in the community. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 55: 626–632.
Brewin, C. R. (2001). Memory processes in post-traumatic stress disorder. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 13: 159–163.
Bryant, R. A. (2001). Posttraumatic stress disorder and traumatic brain injury: Can they co-exist? Clin. Psychol. Rev. 21: 931–948.
Bryant, R. A., and Harvey, A. G. (1997). Attentional bias in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Trauma. Stress 10: 635–644.
Charney, D. S., Deutch, A., Southwick, S., and Krystal, J. (1995). Neural circuits and mechanisms of posttraumatic stress disorder. In: Friedman, M., Charney, D., and Deutch, A. (eds.), Neurobiological and Clinical Consequences of Stress: From Normal Adaptation to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, New York, Lippincott-Raven, pp. 271–287.
Conners, C. K. (1992). Connors' Continuous Performance Test Computer Program User's Guide. Toronto, Canada: Multi-Health Systems.
Crook, T. H., and Larrabee, G. J. (1990). A self-rating scale for evaluating memory in everyday life. Psychol. Aging 5(1): 48–57.
Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain, Grosset/Putnam, New York.
Damasio, A. R., and Anderson, S. W. (1993). The frontal lobes. In: Heilman, K., and Valenstein, E. (eds.), Clinical Neuropsychology, Oxford University Press, New York, pp. 400–460.
Davidson, J. R. T. (1992). Drug therapy of posttraumatic stress disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 160: 309–314.
Davidson, J. R. T., and Fairbank, J. A. (1993). The epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. In: Davidson, J. R. T., and Foa, E. B. (eds.), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: DSM-IV and Beyond, American Psychiatric Press, Washington, pp. 147–172.
Davis, M. (1997). Neurobiology of fear responses: The role of the amygdala. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 9(3): 382–402.
de Jong, J. T., Komproe, I. H., and Van Ommeren, M. (2001). Lifetime events and posttraumatic stress disorder in 4 post conflict settings. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 286: 555–562.
Delaney, R. C., Rosen, A. J., Mattson, R. H., and Novelly, R. A. (1980). Memory function in focal epilepsy: A comparison of non-surgical, unilateral temporal lobe and frontal lobe samples. Cortex 16: 103–117.
Delis, D., Kramer, J., Ober, B., and Kaplan, E. (1987). The California Verbal Learning Test Manual, Psychological Corp., New York.
De Renzi, E. (1982). Memory Disorders Following Focal Neocortical Damage, Philosophical Transactions Royal Society, London.
Eadie, K., and Shum, D. (1995). Assessment of visual memory: A comparison of Chinese characters and geometric figures as stimulus materials. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 17: 731–739.
Elzinga, B. M., and Bremner, J. D. (2002). Are the Neural Substrates of Memory the Final Common Pathway in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (Ptsd)? Journal of Affective Disorders, 70: 1–17.
Endicott, J., and Spitzer, R. L. (1978). A diagnostic interview: The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 35: 837–844.
Everly, G. S., and Horton, A. M. (1989). Neuropsychology of posttraumatic stress disorder: A pilot study. Percept. Mot. Skills 68: 807–810.
Foa, E. B. (1995). Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale, National Computer Systems, Minneapolis, MN.
Foy, D. W., Sipprelle, R. C., Rueger, D. B., and Carroll, E. M. (1984). Etiology of posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40: 1323–1328.
Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Gruen, R. J., and De Longis, A. (1986). Appraisal, coping, health status and psychological symptoms. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 50: 571–579.
Foy, D. W. (1992). Introduction and description of the disorder. In: Foy, D. W. (ed.), Treating PTSD: Cognitive–Behavioral Strategies, Guilford Press, London, pp. 1–13.
Gil, T., Calev, A., Greenberg, D., Kugelmass, S., and Lerer, B. (1990). Cognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Trauma. Stress 3: 29–46.
Gilbertson, M. W., Gurvits, T. V., Lasko, N. B., and Pitman, R. K. (1997). Neuropsychological assessment of Vietnam combat veterans with and without PTSD. In: Yehuda, R., and McFarlane, A. C. (eds.), Psychobiology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York, pp. 476–480.
Goldstein, G., van Kammen, W., Shelly, C., Miller, D. J., and van Kammen, D. P. (1987). Survivors of imprisonment in the Pacific theatre during World War two. Am. J. Psychiatry 144: 1210–1213.
Green, J., Green, B. L., and Lindy, J. D. (1994). Posttraumatic stress disorder in victims of disasters. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 17: 301–309.
Gronwall, D., and Sampson, H. (1974). The Psychological Effects of Concussion, Oxford University Press, Auckland, NZ.
Gurvits, T. V., Shenton, M. E., Hokama, H., Ohta, H., Lasko, N. B., Gilbertson, M. W., et al. (1996). Magnetic resonance imaging study of hippocampal volume in chronic, combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 40: 1091–1099.
Guy, W. (1976). ECDEU Assessment Manual for Psychopharmacology, U.S. Department of HEW, Bethseda.
Halstead, W. C. (1947). Brain and Intelligence, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Hamilton, M. I. (1960). A rating scale for depression. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 23: 56–62.
Hamner, M. B., Lorberbaum, J. P., and George, M. S. (1999). Potential role of the anterior cingulate cortex in PTSD: Review and hypothesis. Depress. Anxiety 9: 1–14.
Hannay, H. J., and Levin, H. S. (1985). Selective Reminding Test: An examination of the equivalence or four forms. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 7: 251–263.
Heaton, R. K. (1981). The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Manual, Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa, FL.
Heilbronner, R. L. (1992). The search for a “pure” visual memory test: Pursuit of perfection? Clin. Neuropsychol. 6: 105–112.
Hickling, E. J., and Blanchard, E. B. (1992). Posttraumatic stress disorder and motor vehicle accidents. J. Anxiety Disord. 6: 285–291.
Hoffman, K. J., and Sasaki, J. E. (1997). Comorbidity of substance abuse and PTSD. In: Fullerton, C. S., and Ursano, R. J. (eds.), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Acute and Long-Term Responses to Trauma and Disaster, Psychiatric Press, London, pp. 159–174.
Hutt, M. L. (1977). The Hutt Adaptation of the Bender–Gestalt Test, Grune and Stratton, New York.
Jenkins, M. A., Langlais, P. L., Delis, D., and Cohen, R. (1998). Learning and memory in rape victims with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 155: 278–279.
Jenkins, M. A., Langlais, P. L., Delis, D., and Cohen, R. (2000). Attentional dysfunction associated with posttraumatic stress disorder among rape survivors. Clin. Neuropsychol. 14: 7–12.
Jones, J. C., and Barlow, D. H. (1990). The etiology of post-traumatic stress disorder. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 10: 299–328.
Kane, R. (1991). Standardized and flexible batteries in neuropsychology: An assessment update. Neuropsychol. Rev. 2: 281–339.
Kaplan, E. (1988). A process approach to neuropsychological assessment. In: Boll, T., and Bryant, B. K. (eds.), Clinical Neuropsychology and Brain Function: Research Measurement and Practice, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp. 129–167.
Karam, E. G. (1997). Comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder and depression. In: Fullerton, C., and Ursano, R. (eds.), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Acute and Long Term Responses to Trauma and Disaster, Psychiatric Press, London, pp. 77–90.
Kato, N., Nishimura, T., Imai, H., and Liu, Y. (2000). Corticosterone and cytokines in the hippocampus: Neurotoxicity vs. neuroprotection. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 3: S43(abstract).
Kay, T. (1999). Interpreting apparent neuropsychological deficits: What is really wrong? In: Sweet, J. J. (ed.), Forensic Neuropsychology: Fundamentals and Practice, Swets Zeitlinger, Lisse. pp. 145–185.
Keane, T. M., Caddell, J., and Taylor, K. (1988). Mississippi Scale for combat-related post-traumatic stress disorder: Three studies in reliability and validity. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 56: 85–90.
Keane, T. M., Malloy, P. F., and Fairbank, J. A. (1984). Empirical development of an MMPI scale for the assessment of combat related post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 52: 888–891.
Kessler, R., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., and Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Co-morbidity survey. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 52: 1048–1060.
Krishnan, K. R. R., Doraiswarmy, P. M., Figiel, G. S., Husain, M. M., Shaw, S. A., Na, C., et al. (1991). Hippocampal abnormalities in depression. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 3: 387–391.
Kudler, H., Davidson, J., Meador, K., Lipper, S., and Ely, T. (1987). The DST and posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 144: 1068–1071.
Laufer, R. S., Frey-Wouters, E., and Gallops, M. S. (1985). Traumatic stressors in the Vietnam war and posttraumatic stress disorder. In: Figley, C. (eds.), Trauma and Its Wake: The Study and Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Brunner/Maxzel, New York, pp. 22–56.
LeDoux, J. E., Cicchetti, P. O., Xagoraris, A., and Romanski, L. M. (1990). The lateral amygdaloid nucleus: Sensory interface of the amygdala in fear conditioning. J. Neurosci 10: 1062–1069.
Levin, H. S., Mattis, S., Ruff, R. M., Eisenberg, H., Marshall, L. F., Tabaddor, K., et al. (1987). Neurobehavioral outcome following minor head injury: A three center study. J. Neurosurg. 66: 234–243.
Lezak, M. D. (1983). Neuropsychological Assessment, Oxford University Press, New York.
Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological Assessment, Oxford University Press, New York.
Lindeman, M., Saari, S., Verkasalo, M., and Prytz, H. (1996). Traumatic stress and its risk factors among peripheral victims of the M/S Estonia Disaster. Eur. Psychol. 1: 255–270.
Loong, J. W. K. I. (1988). The Continuous Performance Test, Wand Neuropsychological Laboratory, San Luis Obispo, CA.
Mapou, R. L. (1992). Memory assessment in clinical practice and research. In: Crawford, M. P., and McKinlay, W. (eds.), A Handbook of Neuropsychological Assessment, Erlbaum, Hove, UK, pp. 73–101.
McCarroll, J. E., Ursano, R. J., and Fullerton, C. S. (1997). Exposure to traumatic death in disaster and war. In: Fullerton, C. S., and Ursano, R. (eds.), Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Acute and Long-Term Responses to Trauma and Disaster, American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC, pp. 37–58.
McFarlane, A. C. (1989). The etiology of posttraumatic morbidity: Predisposing, precipitating, and perpetuating factors. Br. J. Psychiatry 154: 221–228.
McFarlane, A. C. (1992). Multiple diagnoses in posttraumatic stress disorder in the victims of natural disaster. J. Ment. Disord. 180: 498–504.
McGuire, M., Bakst, K., Fairbanks, L., NcGuire, M., Sachinvala, N., von Scotti, H., et al. (2000). Cognitive, mood, and functional evaluations using touchscreen tehnology. J. Nerv. Ment. Disord. 188(12): 813–817.
McNally, R. J. (1997). Implicit and explicit memory for trauma-related information in PTSD. In: Yehuda, R., and McFarlane, A. C. (eds.), Psychobiology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York, pp. 219–225.
Mellman, T. A., Randolph, C. A., Brawman-Mintzer, O., Flores, L. P., and Milanes, F. J. (1992). Phenomenology and course of psychiatric disorders associated with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 149: 1568–1574.
Miller, L. (1999). Atypical psychological responses to traumatic brain injury: PTSD and beyond. NeuroRehabilitation 13: 79–90.
Miller, N. I. (1980). The measurement of mood in senile brain disease: Examiner ratings and relf-reports. In: Cole, J., and Barrett, J. (eds.), Psychopathology in the Aged, Raven Press, New York, pp. 97–108.
Norris, F. H. (1992). Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 60: 409–418.
Osterreith, P. A. I. (1944). Le Test de copie d'une figure complexe. Arch. Psychol. 30: 206–356.
Parker, R. S. (1990). Traumatic Brain Injury and Neuropsychological Impairment, Springer, London.
Pitman, R. K. (1989). Post-traumatic stress disorder, hormones, and memory. Biol. Psychiatry 26: 221–223.
Ponsford, J., Sloan, S., and Snow, P. (1995). Traumatic Brain Injury: Rehabilitation for Every Day Adaptive Living, Psychology Press, Hove, East Sussex, UK.
Posner, M. I., Walker, J. A., Freidrich, F. J., and Rafal, R. D. (1984). Effects of parietal injury on covert orienting of attention. J. Neurosci. 4: 1863–1874.
Prigatano, G. P. (2000). Principles of Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Rankin, E. J., and Adams, R. L. (1999). The neuropsychological evaluation. In: Sweet, J. J. (ed.), Forensic Neuropsychology: Fundamentals and Practice, Swets and Zeitlinger, Lisse, pp. 83–121.
Ravdin, L. D., Hilton, E., Primeau, M., Clements, C., and Barr, W. B. (1996). Memory functioning in Lyme Borreliosis. J. Clin. Psychiatry 57: 282–286.
Reitan, R. M. (1967). Psychological changes associated with aging and with cerebral damage. Mayo Clin. Proc. 42: 653–673.
Rey, A. (1964). L'examin clinique en psychologie, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris.
Robins, L. N., & Helzer, J. E. (1985). The Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS): Version III-A. St. Louis: Washington University School of Medicine.
Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Croughan, J., and Ratcliffe, K. S. (1981). The National Institute of Mental Health Diagnositic Interview Schedule: Its history, characteristics, and validity. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 38: 381–389.
Roca, V., and Freeman, T. (2001). Complaints of impaired memory in veterans with PTSD. Am. J. Psychiatry 158: 1738–1740.
Ryan, C., and Butters, N. (1980). Learning and memory impairments in young and old alcoholics: Evidence for the premature aging hypothesis. Alcoholism 4: 190–198.
Sachinvala, N., von Scotti, H., McGuire, M., Fairbanks, L., Bakst, K., and Mcguire, M. (2000). Memory, attention, function, and mood among patients with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 188(12): 818–823.
Schacter, D. L., Chiu, C. Y. P., and Ochsner, K. N. (1993). Implicit memory: A selective review. Annu. Rev. Neurosci 6: 159–182.
Schneider, R. K., and Levenson, J. L. (2002). Update in Psychiatry. Ann. Intern. Med. 137: 671–677.
Shipley, W. C. (1967). Shipley Institute of Living Scale: Manual of Directions and Scoring Key, Western Psychological Service, Beverly Hills, CA.
Shum, D. H. K., Harris, D., and O'Gorman, J. (2000). Effects of severe traumatic brain injury on visual memory. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 22: 25–40.
Shum, D. H. K., O'Gorman, J., and Eadie, K. (1999). Normative data for a new memory test. The Shum Visual Learning Test. Clin. Neuropsychol. 13: 121–125.
Snyder, P. J., and Nussbaum, P. D. (1999). Clinical Neuropsychology: A Pocket Handbook for Assessment, American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C
Spitzer, R. L., Williams, J. B. W., and Gibbon, M. (1987). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R (SCID), Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research, New York.
Squire, L. R. (1986). Mechanisms of memory. Science, 232: 1612–1619.
Squire, L. R. (1992). Declarative and nondeclarative memory: Multiple brain systems supporting learning and memory. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 4: 232–243.
Squire, L. R., Knowlton, B., and Musen, G. (1993). The structure and organization of memory. Annual Review of Psychology, 44: 453–495.
Stein, M. B., Hanna, C., Koverola, C., Torchia, M., McClarty, B., Yehuda, R., et al. (1997). Structural brain changes in PTSD. Does trauma alter neuroneuroanatomy? In: Yehuda, R., and McFarlane, A. C. (eds.), Psychobiology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York, pp. 57–76.
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. J. Exp. Psychol. 18: 643–661.
Sutker, P. B., Vasterling, J. J., Brailey, K., and Allain, A. N. (1995). Memory, attention, and executive deficits in POW survivors: Contributing biological and psychosocial factors. Neuropsychology 9: 118–125.
Sutker, P. B., Winstead, D. K., Galina, Z. H., and Allain, A. N. (1991). Cognitive deficits and psychopathology among former prisoners of wars and combat veterans of the Korean conflict. Am. J. Psychiatry 148: 67–72.
Tailland, G. A. (1965). Deranged Memory, Academic Press, New York.
Trahan, D. E., and Larrabee, G. J. (1988). Continuous Visual Memory Test Professional Manual, Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa, FL.
Tranel, D., and Damasio, A. R. (1995). Neurobiological foundations of human memory. In: Baddeley, A. D., Wilson, B. A., and Watts, F. N. (eds.), Handbook of Memory Disorders, Wiley, London, pp. 27–50.
Trennery, M. R., Jack, C. R., Cascino, G. D., Sharbrough, F. W., and Ivnik, R. J. (1996). Sex differences in the relationship between visual memory and MRI hippocampal volumes. Neuropsychology 10: 343–351
Uddo, M., Vasterling, J. J., Brailey, K., and Sutker, P. B. (1993). Memory and attention in post-traumatic stress disorder. J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess. 15: 43–52.
van der Kolk, B. A. (1994). The body keeps the score: Memory and the evolving psychobiology of post-traumatic stress. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 1: 253–265.
Vasterling, J. J., Brailey, K., Constans, J. I., and Sutker, P. (1998). Attention and memory dysfunction in post traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychology 12: 125–133.
Viguier, D., Dellatolas, G., Gasquet, I., Martin, C., and Choquet, M. (2001). A psychological assessment of adolescent and young adult inpatients after traumatic brain injury. Brain Inj. 15: 263–271.
Weschler, D. (1981). Manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Revised, Psychological Corporation, New York.
Weschler, D. (1987). Weschler Memory Scale—Revised Manual, The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio, TX.
Weschler, D., and Stone, C. P. (1955). A Standardized Memory Scale for Clinical Use, Psychological Corporation, New York.
Weschler, D., and Stone, C. P. (1955). Manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Psychological Corporation, New York.
Westermeyer, J., and Neider, J. (1988). Social networks and psychopathology among substance abusers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1265–1269.
White, N. S. I. (1983). Posttraumatic stress disorder. Hosp. Community Psychiatry 34: 1061–1062.
Wilson, B., Cockburn, J., Baddeley, A., and Hiorns, R. (1989). Development and validation of a test battery for detecting and monitoring everyday memory problems. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 11, 855–870.
Wolfe, J., and Charney, D. S. (1991). Use of neuropsychological assessment in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol. Assess. 3: 573–580.
Wolfe, J., and Schlesinger, L. K. (1997). Performance of PTSD patients on standard tests of memory: Implications for trauma. In: Yehuda, R., and McFarlane, A. (eds.), Psychobiology of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York, pp. 208–219.
Yehuda, R., Keefe, R. S. E., Harvey, P. D., Levengood, R. A., Gerber, D.K., Geni, J., et al. (1995). Learning and memory in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 152: 137–139.
Yehuda, R., Southwick, S. M., and Giller, E. L., Jr. (1992). Exposure to atrocities and severity of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam combat veterans. Am. J. Psychiatry 149: 333–336.
Zalewski, C., Thompson, W., and Gottesman, I. (1994). Comparison of neuropsycholgical test performance in PTSD, generalised anxiety disorder, and control Vietnam veterans. Assessment 1: 133–142.
Zeitlin, S. B., and McNally, R. J. (1991). Implicit and explicit memory bias for threat in post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavioural Research Therapy, 29: 451–457.