Abstract
Existing literature provides a complicated picture of the relationship between digital media use and psychological outcomes. Both correlational and some experimental studies suggest that social media use specifically can be associated with diminished psychological functioning in adolescents and young adults. However, these effect sizes are not large, and must be considered in light of studies that suggest some positive outcomes associated with some uses of digital media, and a range of moderators of the identified associations. Although a growing body of evidence suggests that digital stress may be an important intervening factor between digital media use and psychosocial outcomes, this literature is complicated by multiple nomenclatures for similar or identical constructs. Our review of the literature suggests four potentially related components of digital stress, including availability stress, approval anxiety, fear of missing out, and communication overload. This conceptualization is consistent with recent published frameworks for understanding digital media’s influence on peer relationships. Clinicians working with adolescents and young adults are encouraged to assess digital media use in the context of clients’ overall psychological and social functioning, and in consideration of clients’ specific uses of media. Future research is needed to examine the associations among components of digital stress and clinical outcomes, and to provide valid measures to assess digital stress in research and clinical settings.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
American Academy of Pediatrics Council on Communications and Media. (2016). Media and young minds. Pediatrics,138(5), e20162591. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-2591.
Anderson, M., & Jiang, J. (2018). Teens, social media and technology 2018. Pew Research Center. Accessed October 30, 2018, from http://www.pewinternet.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2018/05/PI_2018.05.31_TeensTech_FINAL.pdf.
Baker, D. A., & Algorta, G. P. (2016). The relationship between online social networking and depression: A systematic review of quantitative studies. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking,19(11), 638–648. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0206.
Baron, N. (2008). Always on: Language in an online and mobile world. New York: Oxford University Press.
Barry, C. T., Sidoti, C. L., Briggs, S. M., Reiter, S. R., & Lindsey, R. A. (2017). Adolescent social media use and mental health from adolescent and parent perspectives. Journal of Adolescence,61, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.08.005.
Baym, N. K. (2010). Personal connections in the digital age. Malden, MA: Polity Press.
Beyens, I., Frison, E., & Eggermont, S. (2016). “I don’t want to miss a thing”: Adolescents’ fear of missing out and its relationship to adolescents’ social needs, Facebook use, and Facebook related stress. Computers in Human Behavior,64, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.05.083.
Blakemore, S.-J., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,47(3/4), 296–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x.
Blum-Ross, A., & Livingstone, S. (2016). Families and screen time: Current advice and emerging research. Media Policy Brief 17. London: Media Policy Project, London School of Economics and Political Science.
Campisi, J., Bynog, P., McGehee, H., Oakland, J. C., Quirk, S., Taga, C., et al. (2012). Facebook, stress, and incidence of upper respiratory infection in undergraduate college students. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking,15(12), 675–681. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0156.
Chen, W., & Lee, K. H. (2013). Sharing, liking, commenting, and distressed? The pathway between Facebook interaction and psychological distress. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking,16(10), 728–734. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2012.0272.
Davila, J., Hershenberg, R., Feinstein, B. A., Gorman, K., Bhatia, V., & Starr, L. R. (2012). Frequency and quality of social networking among young adults: Associations with depressive symptoms, rumination, and co-rumination. Psychology of Popular Media Culture,1, 72–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027512.
Defoe, I. N., Dubas, J. S., Figner, B., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2015). A meta-analysis on age differences in risky decision making: Adolescents versus children and adults. Psychological Bulletin,141(1), 48–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038088.
Ellison, N. B., & Vitak, J. (2015). Social network site affordances and their relationship to social capital processes. In S. S. Sundar (Ed.), The Handbook of the psychology of communication technology (pp. 205–227). Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Fox, J., & Moreland, J. J. (2015). The dark side of social networking sies: An exploration of the relational and psychological stressors associated with Facebook use and affordances. Computers in Human Behavior,45(11), 168–176. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.083.
Halfmann, A., & Rieger, D. (2019). Permanently on call: The effects of social pressure on smartphone users’ self-control, need satisfaction, and well-being. JCMC. https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmz008.
Hall, J. A. (2011). Sex differences in friendship expectations: A meta-analysis. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships,28(6), 723–747. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407510386192.
Hall, J. A. (2017). The experience of mobile entrapment in daily life. Journal of Media Psychology,29((Special Issue)), 148–158. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000228.
Hall, J. A. (2018). When is social media use social interaction? Defining mediated social interaction. New Media & Society,20(1), 162–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816660782.
Hall, J. A., & Baym, N. K. (2012). Calling and texting (too much): Mobile maintenance expectations, (over)dependence, entrapment, and friendship satisfaction. New Media & Society,14, 316–331. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444811415047.
Hall, J. A., Pennington, N., & Lueders, A. (2014). Impression creation and formation on Facebook: A lens model approach. New Media & Society,16, 958–982. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444813495166.
Hancock, J., Liu, S. X., French, M., Luo, M., & Mieczkowski, H. (2019). Social media use and well-being: A meta-analysis. Paper presented at the 69th Annual International Communication Association Conference, Prague, CZ.
Hayes, S. C., Levin, M. E., Plumb-Vilardaga, J., Villatte, J. L., & Pistorello, J. (2013). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and contextual behavioral science: Examining the progress of a distinctive model of behavioral and cognitive therapy. Behavior Therapy,44(2), 180–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2009.08.002.
Heffer, T., Good, M., Daly, O., MacDonell, E., Willoughby, T., et al. (2019). The longitudinal association between social media use and depressive symptoms among adolescents and young adults: An empirical reply to Twenge et al. (2018). Clinical Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702618812727.
Hefner, D., Knop, K., & Klimmt, C. (2018). Being mindfully connected: Responding to the challenges of adolescents living in a POPC world. In P. Vorderer, D. Henfer, L. Reinecke, & C. Klimmt (Eds.), Permanently online, permanently connected: Living and communicating in a POPC world (pp. 176–187). New York: Routledge.
Hefner, D., & Vorderer, P. (2016). Digital stress: Permanent connectedness and multitasking. In L. Reinecke & M.-B. Oliver (Eds.), Handbook of media use and well-being (pp. 23–249). New York: Routledge.
Hunt, M. G., Narx, R., Lipson, C., & Young, J. (2018). No more FOMO: Limiting social media decreases loneliness and depression. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,37(10), 751–768. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2018.37.10.751.
Jiang, J. (2018). How teens and parents navigate screen time and device distractions. Pew Research Center. Accessed November 1, 2018, from http://www.pewinternet.org/2018/08/22/how-teens-and-parents-navigate-screen-time-and-device-distractions/.
Kim, J., & Lee, J.-E. R. (2011). The Facebook paths to happiness: Effects of the number of Facebook friends and self-presentation on subjective well-being. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking,14(6), 359–364. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0374.
LaRose, R., Connolly, R., Lee, H., Li, K., & Hales, K. D. (2014). Connection overload? A cross cultural study of the consequences of social media connection. Information Systems Management,31(1), 59–73. https://doi.org/10.1080/10580530.2014.854097.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.
Lenhart, A. (2015). Teen, social media and technology overview 2015. Pew Research Center. Accessed November 1, 2018, from http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/04/09/teens-social-media-technology-2015/.
Lo, J. (2019). Exploring the buffer effect of receiving social support on lonely and emotionally unstable social networking users. Computers in Human Behavior,90, 103–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.052.
Mai, L. M., Freudenthaler, R., Schneider, F. M., & Vorderer, P. (2015). “I know you’ve seen it!” Individual and social factors for users’ chatting behavior on Facebook. Computers in Human Behavior,49, 296–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.01.074.
Mihailidis, P. (2014). A tethered generation: Exploring the role of mobile phones in the daily life of young people. Mobile Media & Communication,2, 58–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/205015791350558.
Misra, S., & Stokols, D. (2011). Psychological and health outcomes of perceived information overload. Environment and Behavior,44(6), 737–759. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916511404408.
Morin-Major, J. K., Marin, M.-F., Durand, N., Wan, N., Juster, R.-P., & Lupien, S. J. (2016). Facebook behaviors associated with diurnal cortisol in adolescents: Is befriending stressful? Psychoneuroendocrinology,63, 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.10.005.
Nesi, J., Choukas-Bradley, S., & Prinstein, M. J. (2018). Transformation of adolescent peer relations in the social media context: Part 1—A theoretical framework and application to dyadic peer relationships. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review,21(3), 267–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-018-0261-x.
Nesi, J., & Prinstein, M. J. (2015). Using social media for social comparison and feedback-seeking: Gender and popularity moderate associations with depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,43, 1427–1438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0020-0.
O’Gorman, M. (2018). The case for locking up your smartphone. https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2018/02/the-case-for-locking-up-your-smartphone/552215/.
Pew Research Center. (2018). Mobile fact sheet. Accessed November 1, 2018, from http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheet/mobile/.
Poushter, J. (2016). Smartphone ownership and internet usage continues to climb in emerging economies. Pew Research Center. Accessed November 1, 2018, from http://www.pewglobal.org/2016/02/22/smartphone-ownership-and-internet-usage-continues-to-climb-in-emerging-economies/.
Przybylski, A. K., Murayama, K., DeHaan, C. R., & Gladwell, V. (2013). Motivational, emotional, and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out. Computers in Human Behavior,29(4), 1841–1848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014.
Reinecke, L. (2017). POPC and well-being: A risk-benefit analysis. In P. Vorderer, D. Hefner, L. Reinecke, & C. Klimmt (Eds.), Permanently online, permanently connected: Living and communicating in a POPC world (pp. 233–243). New York: Routlege.
Reinecke, L., Aufenanger, S., Beutel, M. E., Dreier, M., Quiring, O., Stark, B., et al. (2017). Digital stress over the life span: The effects of communication load and Internet multitasking on perceived stress and psychological health impairments in a German probability sample. Media Psychology,20, 90–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2015.1121832.
Schurgin-O’Keefe, G. S., Clarke-Pearson, K., et al. (2011). Clinical report—The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics,127(4), 800–804. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-0054.
Sheldon, K. M., Abad, N., & Hinsch, C. (2011). A two-process view of Facebook use and relatedness need-satisfaction: Disconnection drives use, and connection rewards it. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,100(4), 766–776. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022407.
Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Sidani, J. E., Bowman, N. D., Marshal, M. P., & Primack, B. A. (2017). Problematic social media use and depressive symptoms among U.S. young adults: A nationally-representative study. Social Science and Medicine,182, 150–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.03.061.
Song, H., Zmyslinski-Seelig, A., Kim, J., Drent, A., Victor, A., Omori, K., et al. (2014). Does Facebook make you lonely?: A meta-analysis. Computers in Human Behavior,36, 446–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.011.
Steers, M.-L. N., Wickham, R. E., & Acitelli, L. K. (2014). Seeing everyone else’s highlight reels: How Facebook usage is linked to depressive symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology,33(8), 701–731.
Stieger, S., & Lwetez, D. (2018). A week without using social media: Results from an ecological momentary intervention study using smartphones. Cyberpsycholgy, Behavior, and Social Networking,21(10), 618–624. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0070.
Teppers, E., Luyckx, K., Klimstra, T. A., & Goossens, L. (2014). Loneliness and Facebook motives in adolescence: A longitudinal inquiry into directionality of effect. Journal of Adolescence,37(5), 691–699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.11.003.
Thomee, S., Dellve, L., Harenstam, A., & Hagberg, M. (2010). Perceived connections between information and communication technology use and mental symptoms among young adults—A qualitative study. BMC Public Health,10, 66. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-66.
Tromholt, M. (2016). The facebook experiment: Quitting facebook leads to higher levels of well-being. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking,19(11), 661–666. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0259.
Turel, O., Cavagnaro, D. R., & Meshi, D. (2018). Short abstinence from online social networking sites reduces perceived stress, especially in excessive users. Psychiatry Research,270, 947–953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.11.017.
Twenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L., & Martin, G. N. (2018). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among U.S. adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science,6(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617723376.
Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2013). The differential susceptibility to media effects model. Journal of Communication,63, 221–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12024.
Van der Eijnden, R. J. J. M., Meerkerk, G.-J., Vermulst, A. A., Spijkerman, R., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2008). Online communication, compulsive internet use, and psychological well-being among adolescents: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology,44, 655–665. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.655.
Verduyn, P., Lee, D. S., Park, J., Shablack, H., Orvell, A., Bayer, J., et al. (2015). Passive Facebook usage undermines affective well-being: Experimental and longitudinal evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General,144, 480–488. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000057.
Vorderer, P., Hefner, D., Reinecke, L., & Klimmt, C. (2017). Permanently online, permanently connected: Living and communicating in a POPC world. New York: Routledge.
Walther, J. B. (2010). Computer-mediated communication. In C. R. Berger, M. E. Roloff, & D. R. Roskos-Ewoldsen (Eds.), Handbook of communication science (pp. 489–505). Los Angeles: Sage.
Woods, H. C., & Scott, H. (2016). #Sleepyteens: Social media use in adolescence is associated with poor sleep quality, anxiety, depression and low self-esteem. Journal of Adolescence,51, 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.05.008.
Wrzus, C., Hänel, M., Wagner, J., & Neyer, F. J. (2013). Social network changes and life events across the life span: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin,139(1), 53–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028601.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval
This type of study contains no data from human participants collected by the authors.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Steele, R.G., Hall, J.A. & Christofferson, J.L. Conceptualizing Digital Stress in Adolescents and Young Adults: Toward the Development of an Empirically Based Model. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 23, 15–26 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00300-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-019-00300-5