Skip to main content

Advertisement

Log in

Hydraulic efficiency compromises compression strength perpendicular to the grain in Norway spruce trunkwood

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Trees Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate bending stiffness and compression strength perpendicular to the grain of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) trunkwood with different anatomical and hydraulic properties. Hydraulically less safe mature sapwood had bigger hydraulic lumen diameters and higher specific hydraulic conductivities than hydraulically safer juvenile wood. Bending stiffness (MOE) was higher, whereas radial compression strength lower in mature than in juvenile wood. A density-based tradeoff between MOE and hydraulic efficiency was apparent in mature wood only. Across cambial age, bending stiffness did not compromise hydraulic efficiency due to variation in latewood percent and because of the structural demands of the tree top (e.g. high flexibility). Radial compression strength compromised, however, hydraulic efficiency because it was extremely dependent on the characteristics of the “weakest” wood part, the highly conductive earlywood. An increase in conduit wall reinforcement of earlywood tracheids would be too costly for the tree. Increasing radial compression strength by modification of microfibril angles or ray cell number could result in a decrease of MOE, which would negatively affect the trunk’s capability to support the crown. We propose that radial compression strength could be an easily assessable and highly predictive parameter for the resistance against implosion or vulnerability to cavitation across conifer species, which should be topic of further studies.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alméras T (2008) Mechanical analysis of the strains generated by water tension in plant stems. Part II: strains in wood and bark and apparent compliance. Tree Physiol 28:1513–1523

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alméras T, Gril J (2007) Mechanical analysis of the strains generated by water tension in plant stems. Part I: stress transmission from the water to the cell walls. Tree Physiol 27:1505–1516

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alméras T, Yoshida M, Okuyama T (2006) Strains inside xylem and inner bark of a stem submitted to a change in hydrostatic pressure. Trees 20:460–467

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beall FC (2002) Overview of the use of ultrasonic technologies in research on wood properties. Wood Sci Technol 36:197–212

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bendtsen BA, Senft J (1986) Mechanical and anatomical properties in individual growth rings of plantation-grown eastern cottonwood and loblolly pine. Wood Fiber Sci 18:23–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergander A, Salmén L (2000) Variations in transverse fibre wall properties: relations between elastic properties and structure. Holzforschung 54:654–660

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bouffier LA, Gartner BL, Domec J-C (2003) Wood density and hydraulic properties of ponderosa pine from the Willamette valley vs. the Cascade mountains. Wood Fiber Sci 35:217–233

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brodribb TJ, Holbrook NM (2005) Water stress deforms tracheids peripheral to the leaf vein of a tropical conifer. Plant Physiol 137:1139–1146

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess SO, Pitterman J, Dawson TE (2006) Hydraulic efficiency and safety of branch xylem increases with height in Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) crowns. Plant Cell Environ 29:229–239

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cochard H (2001) A new validation of the Scholander pressure chamber technique based on stem diameter variations. J Exp Bot 52:1361–1365

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cochard H, Froux F, Mayr S, Coutand C (2004) Xylem wall collapse in water-stressed pine needles. Plant Physiol 134:401–408

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conejero W, Alarcón JJ, Garcia-Orellana Y, Nicolas E (2007) Evaluation of sap and trunk diameter sensors for irrigation scheduling in early maturing peach trees. Tree Physiol 27:1753–1759

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Domec J-C, Gartner BL (2002a) Age- and position-related changes in hydraulic versus mechanical dysfunction of xylem, inferring the designs criteria for Douglas-fir wood structure. Tree Physiol 22:91–104

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Domec J-C, Gartner BL (2002b) How do water transport and water storage differ in coniferous earlywood and latewood? J Exp Bot 53:2369–2379

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Domec J-C, Gartner BL (2003) Age- and position-related changes in hydraulic versus mechanical dysfunction of xylem: inferring the design criteria for Douglas-fir wood structure. Tree Physiol 22:91–104

    Google Scholar 

  • Domec J-C, Lachenbruch B, Meinzer FC (2006) Bordered pit structure and function determine spatial patterns of air-seeding thresholds in xylem of Douglas-fir (Pseudostuga menziesii; Pinaceae). Am J Bot 93:1588–1600

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Domec J-C, Warren JM, Meinzer FC, Lachenbruch B (2009) Safety for xylem failure by implosion and air-seeding within roots, trunks and branches of young and old conifer trees. IAWA J 30:101–120

    Google Scholar 

  • Eder M, Jungnikl K, Burgert I (2009) A close-up view of wood structure and properties across a growth ring of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L) Karst.). Trees 23:79–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans R, Illic J (2001) Rapid prediction of wood stiffness from microfibril angle and density. For Prod J 51(3):53–57

    Google Scholar 

  • Ezquerra FJ, Gil LA (2001) Wood anatomy and stress distribution in the stem of Pinus pinaster Ait. Investig Agrar Sist Recur For 10:165–177

    Google Scholar 

  • Gartner BL (1995) Patterns of xylem variation within a tree and their hydraulic and mechanical consequences. In: Gartner BL (ed) Plant stems: physiology and functional morphology. Academic Press, New York, pp 125–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Gindl W (2001) The effect of lignin on the moisture-dependent behavior of spruce wood in axial compression. J Mat Sci Lett 20:2161–2162

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gorišek Z, Torelli N (1999) Microfibril angle in juvenile, adult and compression wood of spruce and silver fir. Phyton (Horn, Austria) 39:129–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Hacke UG, Sperry JS (2001) Functional and ecological xylem anatomy. Perspect Plant Ecol Evol Syst 4:97–115

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hacke UG, Sperry JS, Pockman WT, Davis SD, McCulloh K (2001) Trends in wood density and structure are linked to prevention of xylem implosion by negative pressure. Oecologia 126:457–461

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hacke UG, Sperry JS, Pitterman J (2004) Analysis of circular bordered pit function. II. Gymnosperm tracheids with torus-margo pit membranes. Am J Bot 91:386–400

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hannrup B, Cahalan C, Chantre G, Grabner M, Karlsson B, Le Bayon I, Müller U, Pereira H, Rodrigues JC, Rosner S, Rozenberg P, Wilhelmsson L, Wimmer R (2004) Genetic parameters of growth and wood quality traits in Picea abies. Scand J For Res 19:14–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herzog KM, Häsler R, Thum R (1996) Diurnal changes in the radius of a supalpine Norway spruce stem: their relation to the sap flow and their use to estimate transpiration. Trees 10:94–101

    Google Scholar 

  • Hölttä T, Vesala T, Perämäki M, Nikinmaa E (2002) Relationships between embolism, stem water tension and diameter changes. J Theor Biol 215:23–38

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Irvine J, Grace J (1997) Continuous measurements of water tensions in the xylem of trees based on the elastic properties of wood. Planta 202:455–461

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson GE, Grace J (1996) Field measurements of xylem cavitation: are acoustic emissions useful? J Exp Bot 47:1643–1650

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jagels R, Visscher GE (2006) A synchronous increase in hydraulic conductive capacity and mechanical support in conifers with relatively uniform xylem structure. Am J Bot 93:179–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jungnikl K, Koch G, Burgert I (2008) A comprehensive analysis of the relation of cellulose microfibril orientation and lignin content in the S2 layer of different tissue types of spruce wood (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). Holzforschung 62:475–480

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Juodeikiene I, Norvydas V (2005) Compression strength of oak and ash wood perpendicular to the grain. Mat Sci (Medžiagotyra) 11:40–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Keunecke D, Stanzl-Tschegg S, Niemz P (2007) Fracture characterisation of yew (Taxus baccata L.) and spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) in the radial-tangential and tangential-radial crack propagation system by a micro wedge splitting test. Holzforschung 61:582–588

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keunecke D, Evans R, Niemz P (2009) Microstructural properties of common yew and Norway spruce determined with Silviscan. IAWA J 30:165–178

    Google Scholar 

  • Kolb KJ, Sperry JS (1999) Differences in drought adaptation between subspecies of sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata). Ecology 80:2373–2384

    Google Scholar 

  • Larjavaara M, Muller-Landau HC (2010) Rethinking the value of high wood density. Funct Ecol 24:701–705

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtenegger H, Reiterer A, Stanzl-Tschegg SE, Fratzl P (1999) Variation of cellulose microfibril angles in softwoods and hardwoods: a possible strategy of mechanical optimization. J Struct Biol 128:257–269

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindström H, Evans JW, Verrill SP (1998) Influence of cambial age and growth conditions on microfibril angle in young Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). Holzforschung 52:573–581

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lundgren C (2004) Microfibril angle and density patterns of fertilized and irrigated Norway spruce. Silva Fenn 38:107–117

    Google Scholar 

  • Maherali H, Pockman WT, Jackson GE (2004) Adaptive variation in the vulnerability of woody plants to xylem cavitation. Ecology 85:2184–2199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mattheck C (1998) Design in nature: learning from trees. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayr S, Cochard H (2003) A new method for vulnerability analysis of small xylem areas reveals that compression wood of Norway spruce has lower hydraulic safety than opposite wood. Plant Cell Environ 26:1365–1371

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayr S, Rothart B, Dämon B (2003) Hydraulic efficiency and safety of leader shoots and twigs in Norway spruce growing at the alpine timberline. J Exp Bot 54:2563–2568

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mayr S, Bardage S, Brändström J (2005) Hydraulic and anatomical properties of light bands in Norway spruce compression wood. Tree Physiol 26:17–23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mencuccini M, Grace J, Fioravanti M (1997) Biomechanical and hydraulic determinants of tree structures in Scots pine: anatomical characteristics. Tree Physiol 17:105–113

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meylan BA, Probine MC (1969) Microfibril angle as a parameter in timber quality assessment. For Prod J 19:31–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Müller U, Gindl W, Teischinger A (2003) Effects of cell wall anatomy on the plastic and elastic behaviour of different wood species loaded perpendicular to grain. IAWA J 24:117–128

    Google Scholar 

  • Neher V (1993) Effects of pressures inside Monterey pine trees. Trees 8:9–17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Offenthaler I, Hietz P, Richter H (2001) Wood diameter indicates diurnal and long-term patterns of xylem water potential in Norway spruce. Trees 15:215–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pammenter NW, Vander Willigen C (1998) A mathematical and statistical analysis of the curves illustrating vulnerability of xylem to cavitation. Tree Physiol 18:589–593

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perämäki M, Nikinmaa E, Sevanto S, Ilvesniemi H, Siivola E, Hari P, Vesala T (2001) Tree stem diameter variations and transpiration in Scots pine: an analysis using a dynamic sap flow model. Tree Physiol 25:889–897

    Google Scholar 

  • Perré P (2007) Experimental device for the accurate determination of wood–water relations on micro-samples. Holzforschung 61:419–429

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piñol J, Sala A (2000) Ecological implications of xylem cavitation for several Pinaceae in the Pacific Northern USA. Funct Ecol 14:538–545

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pitterman J, Sperry JS, Wheeler JK, Hacke UG, Sikkema EH (2006) Mechanical reinforcement of tracheids compromises the hydraulic efficiency of conifer xylem. Plant Cell Environ 29:1618–1628

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raiskila S, Saranpää P, Fagerstedt K, Laakso T, Löija M, Mahlberg R, Paajanen L, Ritschkoff A-C (2006) Growth rate and wood properties of Norway spruce cutting clones on different sites. Silva Fenn 40:247–256

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosner S, Führer E (2002) The significance of lenticels for successful Pityogenes chalcographus (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) invasion of Norway spruce trees (Picea abies (Pinaceae)). Trees 16:497–503

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosner S, Klein A, Wimmer R, Karlsson B (2006) Extraction of features from ultrasound acoustic emissions: a tool to assess the hydraulic vulnerability of Norway spruce trunkwood? New Phytol 171:105–116

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosner S, Klein A, Müller U, Karlsson B (2007) Hydraulic and mechanical properties of young Norway spruce clones related to growth and wood structure. Tree Physiol 27:1165–1178

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosner S, Klein A, Müller U, Karlsson B (2008) Tradeoffs between hydraulic and mechanical stress response of mature Norway spruce trunkwood. Tree Physiol 28:1179–1188

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosner S, Karlsson B, Konnerth J, Hansmann C (2009) Shrinkage processes in standard-size Norway spruce wood specimens with different vulnerability to cavitation. Tree Physiol 29:1419–1431

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sirviö J, Kärenlampi P (1998) Pits as natural irregularities in softwood fibers. Wood Fiber Sci 30:27–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Skatter S, Kucera B (1997) Spiral grain: an adaptation of trees to withstand stem breakage caused by wind-induced torsion. Holz Roh Werkst 55:207–213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spatz H-C, Bruechert F (2000) Basic biomechanics of self-supporting plants: wind loads and gravitational loads on a Norway spruce tree. For Ecol Manage 135:33–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sperry JS, Hacke UG, Pitterman J (2006) Size and function in conifer tracheids and angiosperm vessels. Am J Bot 93:1490–1500

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ueda M, Shibata E (2001) Diurnal changes in branch diameter as indicator of water status of Hinoki cypress Chamaecyparis obtusa. Trees 15:315–318

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann MH (1983) Xylem structure and the ascent of sap. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Zobel BJ, Sprague JR (1998) Juvenile wood in forest trees. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Zweifel R, Item H, Häsler R (2001) Link between diurnal stem radius changes and tree water relations. Tree Physiol 21:869–877

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was financed by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF, Projects T304-B16 and V146-B16). The authors thank Christian Hansmann and Johannes Konnerth for technical advice and useful discussions.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sabine Rosner.

Additional information

Communicated by S. Mayr.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Rosner, S., Karlsson, B. Hydraulic efficiency compromises compression strength perpendicular to the grain in Norway spruce trunkwood. Trees 25, 289–299 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-010-0505-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-010-0505-y

Keywords

Navigation